Contents
Links
1. FOOD SECURITY IN SUB-SAHARA AFRICA
2. Agriculture Technology Diffusion and Price Policy, proceedings of a policy forum
3. African Centre for Technology Studies
4. Indonesian Farmers' Fund assists African countries in their fight for food security (FAO)
5. Soil fertility and hunger in Africa
Articles
1. Improving the efficiency of butter-making in Ethiopia
2. Integration of livestock with perennial crops
3. Livestock - a driving force for food security and sustainable development
4. Livestock development strategies
5. Veterinary education for public and private practice and research in developing countries
19359 Devereux, Stephen & Maxwell, Simon (Eds.)
FOOD SECURITY IN SUB-SAHARA AFRICA
Brings together different perspectives on critical food security issues, from the causes of food insecurity to policy and planning interventions. Tables, notes, refs, index, xviii, 350pp, UK. INTERMEDIATE TECHNOLOGY PUBLICATIONS, 1853395234
2001
Agriculture Technology Diffusion and Price Policy, proceedings of a policy forum
URL:
http://www.ifpri.org/2020/nw/publications.htm
Description: Proceedings of a policy forum on Agriculture Technology Diffusion and Price Policy held in Addis Ababa, March 25, 2002. Organized by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) in collaboration with the Ethiopian Development Research Institute (EDRI) under the auspices of the 2020 Vision Network for East Africa. This will be the first in a series of reports on key food policy issues related to food, agriculture, and the environment in East Africa. "Agriculture Technology Diffusion and Price Policy" examines the relationship between the diffusion of agricultural technology and price policy in Ethiopia and considers the experiences of other countries in the hopes of exploring how best to cope with an emerging situation of grain price collapse in Ethiopia. Four research papers commissioned from within Ethiopia were discussed during the forum, as was a conceptual and empirical paper by IFPRI researchers, which set the international context and comparative experiences of different countries. This proceedings volume contains the papers presented and the subsequent discussions held during the policy forum. This report also has an accompanying policy brief by the same title (2020 Vision Network Policy Brief 1) which contains the full report's executive summary.
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI))
African Centre for Technology Studies URL:
http://www.acts.or.ke/
Description: The African Centre for Technology Studies (ACTS) is an international inter-governmental policy research and training organization located in Nairobi, Kenya. The Centre's activities focus on the implementation of Agenda 21 and related conventions on biological diversity, climate change and desertification. Projects of the Center include: Ecological Sources of AfricaPolicy; Water Resources Management; Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property (TRIPs); and "On Lake Victoria". A number of online publications are available on the Center's website.
Indonesian Farmers' Fund assists African countries in their fight for food security (FAO)
URL:
http://www.fao.org/reliefoperations/media/download/sharing_knowledge.pdf
Description: From FAO's Emergency Operations and Rehabilitation Division series on Sharing Knowledge (PDF file 3.5Mb).
(Food Security Guide - Development Gateway)
Soil fertility and hunger in Africa
URL: /
http://www.developmentgateway.org/topic/redir?item_id=228867&url=%2fdownload%2f129958%
download/129958/Sanchez.PDF
Description: The fundamental biophysical cause of stagnant per capita food production Africa is soil fertility depletion. Since mineral fertilizers cost 2 to 6 times more than world market prices, a soil fertility replenishment approach has been developed based on naturally available resources: nitrogen-fixing leguminous tree fallows that accumulate 100-200 kg N ha-1, indigenous rock phosphate applications and biomass transfers of the nutrient-accumulating shrub Tithonia diversifolia. Tens of thousands of farmers in East and Southern Africa are becoming food secure with these technologies. Soil fertility depletion must be addressed before other technologies and policies can become effective in overcoming hunger in Africa. Full text: Sanchez P. (2002) Science 295: 2019 - 2020, March 15. Pdf file 355Kb.
Contributed by: Pedro A. Sanchez (University of California, Berkeley)
Submission date: 30 May 2002
http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/V1650T/V1650T0M.HTM
Improving the efficiency of butter-making in Ethiopia
SHORT COMMUNICATIONS
C.B. O'Connor, S. Mezgebu and Z. Zewdie
TThe authors' address is: International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA), PO Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Traditionally, Ethiopian butter has always been made from sour milk. Small quantities of milk are collected in a clay pot for a period of a few days and allowed to sour naturally. When a sufficient amount of milk has been collected, it is churned by shaking the pot until butter granules are formed. Depending on the quantity of milk, the churn is shaken backwards and forwards either on the lap or on the ground.
This traditional method of churning is time-consuming, perhaps taking more than two hours. In making butter from sour milk, the objective is to extract the maximum amount of fat from the milk. The liquid that remains after the butter is made - buttermil
k - is used to produce a type of cottage cheese, called ayib in Ethiopia. Since there is a big difference between the price of butter and that of cottage cheese, any butterfat remaining in the buttermilk can only be considered an economic loss to the smallholder. Consequently, efficient butter-making can be measured by the length of time it takes to churn the milk and, more importantly, by the amount of fat remaining in the buttermilk or the amount of fat extracted from the milk.
Observations made of traditional butter-making by smallholders have indicated that the efficiency should be improved to save time, thereby improving the economic return. Toward this end, the dairy technology personnel at the International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA) have developed a device that fits inside the traditional clay pot and rapidly and consistently agitates the milk. This internal agitator has passed through several phases of development over the years. Details on the design and construction of the agitator are given further on in the article. The dimensions may be amended to suit the size of the container used.
Experimental results
Before recommending the agitator to smallholders, carefully controlled trials were carried out to compare the traditional method with the new one. These trials took place at ILCA's milk-processing laboratories in Debre Zeit and involved the churning of sour whole milk with different levels of fat and at different churning temperatures.
The results of the trials clearly indicated that churning efficiency was considerably improved by using the agitator. At a churning temperature of 18 C, the average fat content of the buttermilk was about 1.4 percent using the traditional method, compared with 1.1 percent when using the agitator. These losses of buttermilk fat led to significant differences in the percentages of fat recovered. In the traditional method of churning, the average percentage of fat recovered was about 67 percent, compared with 76 percent when using the agitator. In these controlled experiments, the length of time required for churning was 65 minutes for the traditional method and 31 minutes for the agitator method.
In separate on-farm trials in the Debre Birhan area, an average churning time of 57 minutes was obtained with the agitator fitted into the clay pot, while a churning time of 139 minutes was the average when using the clay pot only. The average fat content of the buttermilk was 0.36 percent using the agitator method and 1.1 percent using the traditional method. The longer churning times and the lower fat losses in the buttermilk could be attributed to the difference in altitude between Debre Birhan (2 800 masl) and Debre Zeit (1800 masl), the latter having lower churning temperatures.
Detailed look at the internal agitator system - Dtail du systme d'agitateur intrieur - Detalle del sistema del agitador interno
Churning temperature
One of the main factors affecting churning efficiency and, in particular, butterfat recovery is the temperature of the milk at churning. At a churning temperature of 18C, 67 percent of the fat was recovered using the traditional method and 76 percent using the agitator. When the churning temperature was increased to 25 C, the percentage of fat recovered decreased considerably: 44 percent for the traditional method and 55 percent using the agitator. These results highlight the advantages of using the agitator at a low churning temperature.
Recommendation
In order to increase efficiency, it is recommended that smallholders use the agitator and cool the milk to at least 18 C when churning sour whole milk.
Description of the internal agitator
Details of the equipment required for churning butter using the internal agitator system (H) are given in the Figure. The equipment consists of:
* Wooden stopper (A). This fits into the neck of the clay pot. It holds the agitator in position and prevents the milk from spilling.
* Clay pot (B). A gourd may also be used. The size of the clay pot or gourd may vary with the amount of milk available. The container should not be filled more than halfway.
* Padded pot seat (C). The pot seat may be made of cloth or woven hay or straw. It reduces the risk of damage to the clay pot.
* Wooden pole and pegs (D). The wooden pole is made from a single piece of wood. The base of the pole is placed in the ground. In the upper part of the pole there are a number of holes through which the wooden pegs are inserted to keep the braces (E) in place.
* Wooden brace (E). Two wooden braces, placed about 20 cm apart, are used to connect the wooden pole (D) to the internal agitator (F). Four wooden pegs may be used, one on either side of each brace, to give added rigidity to the installation (H).
* Internal agitator with paddle blades (F). The base of the agitator is grooved or U-shaped to hold the paddle blades. There are two paddle blades, and these are kept in position by means of a wooden plug (dowel) inserted at the base of the agitator. When the agitator is not in use the paddle blades hang vertically, thus enabling the agitator to be inserted into the clay pot.
* Nylon rope and handles (G). Nylon rope is inserted through a hole in the upper part of the internal agitator. About half of the rope is wound around the agitator and the ends are attached to wooden handles that, when pulled, give the agitator a circular motion. This rapid circulation causes the paddle blades to rotate in a horizontal position.
B - Clay pot; C - Padded pot seat
D - Pole
Integration of livestock with perennial crops
M. Snchez
The author is Animal Production Officer (Animal Nutrition), Animal Production and Health Division, FAO, Rome, Italy.
Several kinds of integrated agriculture systems, for example, livestock associated with fish ponds and fish with rice (Mukherjee, 1992), sugar cane with livestock (Preston and Murgueitio, 1992) and multipurpose trees with crops (Speedy and Puglise, 1992), are of current interest in developing countries concerned about the efficiency and conservation of the environment. The integration of livestock with perennial crops may also increase productivity per unit of land in a sustainable manner.
Livestock have been associated with perennial crops in one way or another for a long time. Various domestic animals roaming around the backyard underneath fruit-trees is a common scene in tropical regions. It has also been a traditional practice in many areas of the world to use animals, especially sheep, to control weeds in plantations. People benefit from the proximity of plantations where they can graze their animals, if permitted, or collect forage for their livestock kept in confinement.
There are several advantages of integrating animals with perennial crops, apart from the direct benefits of their products (meat, milk, fleece, skins and manure). Grazing animals reduce or eliminate the need for weed control. Undesirable plants, or weeds, become forage, and thus the basis for animal production. Biological weed control using animals offers a much better and cheaper alternative to using herbicides, which could represent a potential hazard to the human and animal environment. Most of the studies and observations made on animals grazing perennial crops have shown increased yields of the main crop - trees. This is probably because of the combined effects of weed control and improved recycling or availability of soil nutrients. Animal production may be the only source of income during the first few years of tree growth, before they become productive. The presence of livestock in plantations keeps the understorey vegetation shorter, which in the case of rubber tree plantations facilitates the daily passage by tappers and in coconut plantations it makes the locating and gathering of nuts much easier.
The system of integrating livestock with perennial crops must be comprehensive, taking all system components into consideration. In most cases, the perennial crop is the main element of, if not the reason for, the system, and it should therefore receive priority. Other physical (soil, nutrients, water, light) and biological (understorey vegetation, animals) components also need to be taken into account, however, and certain compromises in the main crop's potential yield may have to be made in order to have greater total productivity and income and a more sustain-able and environmental] y friendly system.
Modalities of integration
The integration of livestock with perennial crops can be practised in many different ways in relation to time, space and climatic conditions, independent from the specific species of plants and animals involved. One of the simplest approaches is to use neighbours' animals to graze the natural annual vegetation growing during certain times of the year, particularly after the rainy season, for example, sheep grazing in olive-growing regions (Vera y Vega, 1986) or the seasonal feeding of prunings, such as orange prunings for sheep (Borroto et al., 1989) and olive prunings for cattle. In semi-arid regions, seasonal multi-animal grazing is practised in plantations of Agave and Opuntia species.
A more continuous integration is the year-round grazing of local animals on native vegetation growing in tropical tree plantations, for example, ruminants under coconut trees (Reynolds, 1988). A variation of this system is the cut-and-carry of native grasses for livestock kept in confinement, for example, forage from coffee plantations in eastern Java (Iiguez, 1990, personal communication) and from orange plantations in Cuba for sheep (Borroto et al., 1985) and from rubber plantations in northern Sumatra for cattle.
In a more sophisticated system, both the understorey vegetation and the animal species are specifically selected for the integrated system, taking into consideration the existing characteristics of the perennial crop, the soil and the climate. This is the approach that has been taken to search for forage varieties that can be planted under rubber trees for grazing sheep and under oil-palms for both sheep and cattle (Shelton and Str, 1991).
A further refinement is to plant the perennial crop using spacing and patterns that would be most beneficial for the whole integrated system, paying particular attention to the light requirements of the cover crop, such as oil-palms, planted with animal integration in mind.
Components of the integrated system
Physical components
Soil and minerals. The physical and chemical characteristics of the soil partly determine the kind of forage species that grow naturally or that can be introduced. Limited modifications in the soil structure can be envisaged in order to promote the growth of the natural vegetation or that of the cover crop. For example, the addition of lime or phosphorus fertilizers would promote legume growth (Skerman, Cameron and Riveros, 1991). Depending on existing conditions, there could be competition for water and minerals between the main crop and the understorey vegetation. The presence of the latter will, of course, increase the organic matter of the soil and thus improve its water-holding capacity and fertility. Ruminants speed up the recycling of nutrients back into the soil via urine and faeces following the microbial digestion and the metabolism within the body.
In certain circumstances, some soil structures might not tolerate the presence of grazing animals because of excessive soil moisture or the potential problem of soil compaction. The latter would also need to be taken into consideration in the case of mechanical harvesting or cut-and-carry systems.
Water. Water availability is one of the main factors determining the seasonality of forage growth. In the humid tropics, there could be adequate moisture for forage growth during most of the year, but the lack of forage during the dry season would be the main factor limiting the integration of animal production into plantations.
Light. Most perennial crops, especially rubber trees, begin to absorb sunlight at a very early stage and can reach very high levels of absorption of the photosynthetic active radiation (>95 percent) after several years (Snchez and Ibrahim, 1991). Consequently, light could become the single most limiting factor for forage growth (Chen, Wong and Dahlan, 1991).
The typical cycle of plant composition under rubber trees or oil-palm begins with a mixture of grasses, legumes and other forbs, depending on whether the vegetation is natural or artificially planted. After a few years the broadleaves and legumes disappear and only some grasses will remain (Wong, 1991). Eventually all understorey plants will cease to grow until the canopy stretches vertically and some light gets through by reflection. The species that start to grow at this stage depend not only on the light conditions but also on the availability of seeds for self-regeneration.
The pattern in which trees are planted can make a difference in terms of light interception. In tropical areas, trees aligned east-west would allow maximal light penetration to the understorey vegetation.
Biological components
Perennial crop. Above all other factors, the nature of the main crop and its cultural practices determine whether any integration is possible at all, or its modality. Favourable plants for livestock integration would be those least prone to damage by animals because of their height, palatability or toughness of stems and leaves. Adult trees such as palms (oil and coconut) and rubber trees, thorny xerophytes such as Agave and Opuntia, or unpalatable plants, for example, Aloe vera, are good possibilities. Fruit-trees could also be used for integrated systems once they have reached a certain height. Among tropical fruit-trees, mango, avocado, rambutan and durian trees would be suitable, as would pear, peach, apple, orange and olive trees among the temperate fruit-trees.
Goafs grazing on coconut plantation in Haiti.
Sheep grazing on rubber plantation in Indonesia.
N'Dama cattle transporting oil-palm fruit bunches In Cameroon.
Given the fact that in many countries large areas are planted with orange trees, the integration of animals with this fruit crop could offer interesting possibilities. Work has been ongoing in Cuba to develop a system of integrating Peliguey sheep into orange plantations (Borroto et al., 1986). The main problem encountered here has been how to keep damage to the low branches to a minimum by means of grazing systems and restraining devices. In modern, intensively operated orange plantations where trees are pruned low for easier picking and where fruit-bearing branches reach the ground for maximized yields, grazing would not be desirable. In older plantations with higher canopies, however, the presence of animals may not cause any more damage than that caused by agricultural pruning and weed control equipment.
Understorey vegetation. In the simplest forms of integration, natural vegetation in plantations is used for grazing or cut-and-carry. Some of the unpalatable vegetation, such as Eupatorium odoratum, Melastoma malabathricum and Imperata cilindrica, and toxic species, such as Lantana camara and Asclepias curassavica, will remain as weeds, while most of the rest will be used as forage once the animals enter the system. Species growing spontaneously at any particular place might be a mixture of grasses, legumes and broad-leaved plants. Some of these would be consumed more than others, depending on the animal species involved (Tajuddin and Chong, 1991); for instance, sheep prefer tropical legumes and broadleaves over grasses.
When the understorey vegetation is artificially planted, it is referred to as cover crop. If properly selected, it offers many advantages for the main crop and the system as a whole. Cover crops can effectively protect the soil from hydric and aeolic/rain and wind erosion, increase the soil's organic matter, fix nitrogen (legumes), reduce soil moisture loss and topsoil temperature, reduce or eliminate weed growth and provide excellent forage for grazing or cut-and-carry systems.
The ideal cover crop should have the following attributes: easy establishment either vegetatively or, preferably, from seed; excellent soil cover without climbing up the main crop; minimum competition for water and nutrients; adequate nitrogen-fixing capacity; good growth under a variety of light penetration levels characteristic of the main crop; persistence under grazing or cut-and-carry systems; high palatability and nutritive value for the intended animal species; and low potential of becoming a weed beyond the integrated system.
In tropical climates, legumes are preferred over grasses for integrated systems with small ruminants since they are generally more nutritious and contribute to higher levels of animal production. Some tropical legumes are not palatable to animals, such as Calopogonium caerulium. The standard mixture of legumes currently used as cover crops for rubber and oil-palm plantations in Southeast Asia includes Centrosema pubescens, Pueraria phaseoloides, Calopogonium muconoides and Calopogonium caerulium. Of these, only C. pubescens is palatable. P. phaseoloides is only partially consumed and the Calopogonium species almost not at all. The latter species are the most shade-tolerant, however, and thus last longer underneath trees.
Animals. The animal species that have been used with perennial crops range from cattle under coconuts (South Pacific) and oil-palms (Malaysia and Cameroon) to geese under orange trees (Cuba) and ducks under plantains (Dominican Republic). Sheep, because of their docile nature and tendency to graze rather than browse, have been preferred in association with rubber (Malaysia, Indonesia), orange (Cuba), peach (Mexico), olive (Spain) and other fruit-trees. They also integrate well in Aloe vera plantations in the Dominican Republic. They do not consume the aloe leaves except for a few days right after harvest when the aloin-free tissue is temporarily exposed. Dwarf goats from Southeast Asia have been integrated in rubber plantations in Indonesia. Their small size prevents them from causing any major damage to tree foliage, provided that there is plenty of forage for them to select. A study recently completed in Cuba (F. Ojeda, personal communication) has shown the potential of grazing horses in orange plantations. Horses are able to eat very low-quality grasses and do not touch the foliage from orange trees.
Under cut-and-carry systems, all ruminant and herbivore animal species that can be kept in confinement may be integrated with perennial crops. It is only under direct grazing systems that the animals need to be well selected. For example, poultry (chickens, turkeys, guinea fowl), small deer and small African antelopes would be suitable for integration with perennial crops.
The management of livestock under perennial crops has varied from practically non-existent, where the animals are released during the day to roam freely on the plantations, to grazing with a shepherd, to rotational grazing with electric fences. Much better use of the forage resources is achieved with controlled grazing, both in terms of space and time. There is also less risk of tree damage since the animals are brought to the plantation only to graze and can be supervised. Ideally, they should spend their periods of rumination and rest in the corrals.
Since it is unlikely that nutrient requirements for optimum performance of the animals can be met throughout the year only with forage, some sort of feed supplementation may be justified during certain periods of the year (Snchez and Pond, 1991). Energy, sodium and other minerals are the nutrients most likely to be lacking in integrated systems under trees. Although supplementation of sheep grazing in rubber tree plantations with protected protein in the form of fish-meal did not show any positive effect (Snchez and Pond, 1990), a variety of forms of energy supplementation consistently improved sheep performance (Snchez and Pond, 1991).
Examples of livestock integration with perennial crops.
TAnnual forage shortages resulting from seasonal dry periods can be prevented by preserving forage using traditional methods (hay and silage) during periods of abundance or by using forage trees or sugar cane that can be harvested during the dry season. Tree prunings can also be fed to animals, but this can only be done during certain periods of the year so as not to interfere with the maximum benefit to the main crop.
Manure and urine from the animals return mineral nutrients and organic matter to the soil. Since it is most likely that in all integrated systems the animals will spend a considerable amount of time inside barns, it is important that the excreta is returned to the plantation as this will contribute to the sustainability of the system and will reduce or eliminate the need for chemical fertilizers. The additional minerals provided in the supplementation partially enter the nutrient cycle of the integrated system via animal excretions. A system that has worked very well over a long period of time has been that of introducing sheep into coffee plantations in East Java (Iiguez, 1990, personal communication). The sheep owners are allowed to collect the forage under the coffee trees on the condition that they give a certain amount of sheep manure to each tree. Both the plantation managers and the sheep owners benefit from this arrangement while the system becomes environmentally friendly and sustainable.
Constraints of integrated systems
There are several limiting factors in integrating livestock with perennial crops. One of the most important considerations is the possible damage to young trees or to the bark of adult trees. The size of the trees should determine when grazing animals enter the system. In the cut-and-carry system, however, tree size is not as critical. Proper animal management can substantially reduce or eliminate damage to bark by controlling grazing times and areas, by providing supplementary feeding, including minerals, and by removing horns and antlers from the animals. The confinement of males during mating seasons would not only encourage controlled mating, it would also prevent damage to trees.
Cattle grazing on coconut plantation in Sri Lanka - Bovins paissant dans une plantation * cocotiers Sri Lanka - Vacunos pastando en una plantacin * cocoteros en Sri Lanka Photo/foto: P.L. Puglise
Cattle grazing on oil-palm plantation in Malaysia - Bovins paissant dans une plantation * palmiers.
A determining factor for forage production under trees is light penetration. In modern rubber plantations with improved clones and agricultural techniques, trees grow very fast and light penetration is reduced considerably in a few years, preventing the growth of most species. The long life span of tropical plantations permits various degrees of animal integration during the different stages of the tree production cycle. Young and old plantations allow more light penetration and thus favour forage growth.
There have been some reports of increases in rodent populations where there are legume cover crops. On one occasion, mice caused considerable damage to orange tree crowns when their numbers grew as a result of the more favourable habitat under a cover crop of Pueraria phaseoloides (Brache, 1992, personal communication).
Many large plantations in Southeast Asia still prohibit any sort of animal integration, including cut-and-carry systems, not so much because of the impact of the animals, but more to prevent the presence of people who pilfer plantation products and cause damage to trees when gathering fuelwood.
Examples of integration
Existing integrated systems under grazing and cut-and-carry are indicated in the Table. The list is by no means comprehensive, but it includes examples of systems found in various countries around the world. The Table also provides information on plant and animal species and on whether the integration is continuous or seasonal.
Conclusions
With the ever-increasing demand for agricultural land to produce food for the human population, animal production systems will be increasingly dependent on alternative agricultural systems. Integrating livestock with perennial crops offers a unique opportunity to produce valuable animal products on land that is currently used for other purposes, making the overall system more sustainable and environmentally sound. In most cases, the productivity of the main crop may also be improved.
The integration of animals with permanent crops is not a simple system. The animals need to be well selected and their management carefully considered in order to obtain maximum benefits without negatively affecting the production of the main crop.
Some efforts have been made to define the methodology required for a multidisciplinary approach to integrated systems (Imiguez and Snchez, 1991; Shelton and Str, 1991). However, there is a need to define much better the research methodology in order to evaluate the effects on the various system components. The comparative advantages of various species need to be studied for the different systems; for example, identifying a forage species that can be used as cover crop for orange plantations for sheep to graze on. Above all, the protection of the environment and sustainability should be essential objectives of all agricultural systems.
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Livestock development strategies
H. Steinfeld and S. Mack
H. Steinfeld is Senior Officer (Programme, Policy and Planning) and S. Mack is Animal Production Officer (Rural Development) in the Animal Production and Health Division, FAO, Rome, Italy
Livestock make a major, although largely underestimated, contribution to rural development in developing countries. They produce food, enhance crop production and provide additional economic goods and services as well as cash income. The inclusion of livestock diversifies and increases total farm production and income, provides year-round employment and disperses risk. Sales of livestock products provide funds for purchasing crop inputs and for financing farm investments. Livestock often form the major capital reserve of farming households and, in general, enhance the economic viability and sustainability of a farming system.
Despite these positive contributions to agriculture and economic development, many formal livestock projects have failed to meet their objectives, with the result that donors are becoming more and more reluctant to support such developments. Furthermore, animal production is increasingly being viewed far more critically:
- intensive production systems, particularly in industrialized countries, are seen as a major source of pollution;
- increasing ruminant numbers in developing countries are being associated with the degradation of the rangelands and soil erosion;
- livestock development is said to favour the richer segments of society - both producers and consumers - rather than the most vulnerable;
- livestock are thought to compete directly with humans for cereal grains.
Such controversies and the inherent complexity of livestock production impose constraints that have to be addressed and which pose particular challenges not normally faced by the agricultural planner. Yet it is the very complexity of animal production systems that also offers some of the greatest opportunities for development. Livestock, because of their linkages with the overall farming system, make valuable entry points for wider agricultural development programmes. To exploit these opportunities, an integrated approach that combines both technical and institutional interventions is required.
In many countries, the difficulties associated with increasing sustainable animal production are exacerbated by limited public-sector investment and weak, ineffective support services. Programmes and projects are often poorly designed and inadequately targeted, leading to the inefficient and fragmented allocation of scarce development resources. Policies related to the livestock sector are often incoherent with ill-defined goals and with little or no assessment of their likely impact. The lack of consistent, integrated strategies that focus limited resources on identified and attainable goals remains a major constraint to livestock development. The situation is further complicated in that livestock, especially cattle, represent wealth and status and, as a consequence, are disproportionately owned by policy-makers who have a clear vested interest - an interest that is not necessarily beneficial to livestock development in general.
There is obviously a need for an effective policy and planning framework that will optimize development resources and provide the necessary support and economic environment to allow a country's livestock resources to express its potential. This is reflected in the number of countries that have embarked on preparing strategic plans to develop their livestock subsectors, either with their own resources or, increasingly, with the assistance of agencies such as FAO.
A planning perspective
For the agricultural planner, difficulties are related not only to the complexity of livestock production systems but also to an inability to understand how these systems function - this is primarily a problem of quantification and comprehension. One consequence is that development opportunities are often ignored, particularly the potential for using livestock as a catalyst to drive agricultural development. An understanding of the production factors and processes that affect animal production is a prerequisite for livestock development.
Production factors
Livestock. Animals themselves are the major resource, but their mobility makes them a difficult resource to quantify, especially under the extensive management systems that predominate in much of the developing world. While this may create problems for the government statistician and the tax collector, it is unique in that it allows for the exploitation of feed resources for which there are no alternative productive uses, such as extensive arid, semi-arid and cold savannahs, crop residues and agricultural fallow.
Capital. Livestock ownership is more skewed than ownership of or access to land, and, as a consequence, livestock development, especially if it concerns larger and more expensive species such as cattle, tends to produce benefits of low equity. Many non-livestock owners are often precluded from livestock development because of lack of capital or credit. Yet, in many farming systems, livestock constitute the main, if not the only, capital reserve of farming households and, importantly, one that can be readily realized. As such, livestock serve as a strategic reserve that adds stability to the overall fanning system. In this respect, a mix of species increases stability; for example, cattle represent a long-term investment whereas sheep, goats and poultry are primarily shorter-term investments and sources of petty cash.
Feed. Whereas animals can substitute for capital, purchased feeds can substitute for land, creating "landless" production systems, where land is no longer a production factor. These are not primary production systems in the strictest sense, but more industrial and almost exclusively demand-driven. Conversely, extensive pastoral systems depend exclusively on forage, the availability of which is both seasonal and highly dependent on natural factors, most notably rainfall. Such systems are essentially resource-driven and less responsive to price changes.
Many animal feeds also have alternative uses, either for human consumption or for industrial use. These competing demands are determined by price and availability of the commodity, its use and the value of the end-product. In this respect, the more intensive, demand-driven production systems are an important alternative use of these commodities, and, as such, feed-conversion efficiency becomes an important productivity indicator and management objective.
Land. Escalating ruminant (large and small) populations, agricultural encroachment and decline in traditional authority have put an increasing strain on "open access" feed resources - particularly extensive grazing areas leading, in extreme cases, to irreversible degradation. The conflict between communal ownership of land and private ownership of livestock - the classic "tragedy of the commons" - has resulted in a disequilibrium that continues to threaten the ecological stability of many of these fragile environments. However, an increasing body of evidence suggests that these rangeland ecosystems have adapted and are more resistant to heavy stocking than previously thought, and that opportunistic range management often is an efficient and ecologically sound resource use (Behnke, Scoones and Kerven, 1993). For the livestock planner, these are particularly complex and sensitive issues that must be addressed. Technical options are limited, and certainly solutions cannot be found without cognizance of the wider institutional and social contexts.
Access to water, especially in the extensive rangeland systems, is a fundamental prerequisite for livestock production. Historically, water has governed both access to and Use of these resources and has provided a brake on exploitation. Major environmental issues have recently arisen over the provision of new water sources, however, particularly perennial boreholes.
Labour. Labour is the other important resource for which livestock production has a specific requirement. Typically, livestock production is more labour-intensive and less seasonal than crop production, and can utilize family labour that usually has a low opportunity cost. The distribution of labour, responsibilities and benefits tends to be favourable for women, especially with the smaller animal species, which they themselves may own. Since women are largely responsible for the day-to-day management of the household, any development programme must take their time availability into account.
The production process
Livestock production tends to be more complex than crop production. Production cycles, although seasonally influenced, are less pronounced with livestock. Some species have very short reproductive cycles (rabbits, poultry), while those of others (large ruminants) are far longer. In more intensive production systems, seasonal influences can be offset by modifying the environment through improved nutrition and artificially controlled light and temperature.
Unlike intensive production systems, which produce a single product, many of the production systems common to the developing world produce a range of commodities. These may include a mixture of consumables and services that provide cash, subsistence and inputs (draught power and manure) into the farm enterprise. Since livestock so often have a pivotal role in the overall farm system, any constraint imposed on livestock may also restrict the system as a whole.
Animals also have an important asset function. Many smallholders, particularly in mixed-farming systems, prefer the flow products (milk, draught, manure) rather than the end-products (meat, hides and skins) since selling their animals for slaughter entails the permanent loss of flow products. Only in larger herds or flocks can meat offtake be regarded as a flow product. Flow products generate a regular cash income, unlike end-products or crop revenues, and the importance of regular cash flow, however small, is often underestimated in many development efforts, especially within the smallholder sector.
Given the perishable nature of animal products, development beyond household consumption requires marketing and processing facilities that may not be readily available. Milk, for example, not only needs a continuous outlet, but also transport, storage and processing facilities. This interdependency between animal production and the links in the marketing chain increases as systems intensify.
The close relationship between domesticated animals and humans evident throughout history continues, and many societies have strong socio-cultural values attached to their animals. In most cases, these values reflect specific economic attributes and have important implications for livestock development.
Risk is another important factor in livestock production. Extensive livestock production systems are exposed to particularly high risks as a result of natural factors such as drought and disease, whereas in mixed-farming systems livestock help to reduce the overall risks to the enterprise. As production systems intensify, the production risks from natural causes decrease and are replaced by economic risks, such as price fluctuations and taxes. Producers can mitigate risk through diversification (mixed farming and mixed species), flexibility (choice of stocking rate) and increased productivity. The design of livestock development strategies must take these factors into account through risk analysis (Savvides, 1994).
Consumption
On the consumption side, livestock products have characteristics that require specie-1 attention in the planning process. Meat, milk and eggs are all perishable products that need refrigeration and careful handling if they are to remain fit for human consumption. Such processes impose certain infrastructural requirements that may be beyond the resources of a given country or even a region. This is a major contributing factor to the small amount of milk products marketed in sub-Saharan Africa, for example.
Typically, livestock products also have a high elasticity of demand but a low elasticity of supply, particularly in land-based smallholder production. In many countries the demand for animal products increases rapidly with expanding urbanization (and changes in consumption patterns), growth in per caput income and a growing population. Because of this demand pattern it has been argued that livestock development tends to favour the higher-income sectors of society - an isolated view, yet one that has deterred potential donors - but does not adequately take account of benefits on the supply side.
All edible livestock products have high nutritive value. They are especially rich in protein, with a favourable composition of amino acids. Milk availability is one of the major contributors to the alleviation of malnutrition among the more vulnerable sections of society, most notably children. The excessive consumption of animal products, which is now recognized as a serious health hazard, is primarily a concern in affluent societies, while in developing countries consumption levels remain low. Indeed, animal fat provides a valuable contribution to the daily energy requirements in these countries.
An approach to livestock-sector planning
The FAO Animal Production and Health Division (AGA) is developing a methodology to provide a rational basis for livestock-sector planning that will assist governments in determining their own policies and priorities. The principles described apply equally to a particular segment, species or geographical region of the subsector-milk production, animal health or the subhumid zone, for example - and to the subsector as a whole. The chosen approach can be described as interdisciplinary, as it combines the biological, social and economic sciences, dynamic, in that it uses scenarios to anticipate future development, and systems-oriented.
In general, most livestock development strategies have similar aims, namely, to:
- conserve the natural resource base;
- raise productivity through better utilization of available resources: capital (animals), land and labour;
- expand production where there is a sufficient demand and resources can be utilized at reasonable cost to the environment;
- optimize the allocation of development resources through rational administration and management.
A strategy for livestock development has a number of technical and socio-economic dimensions that need to be addressed if it is to have any relevance or acceptance. To make the planning process simple and transparent, the approach adopted by AGA follows the logical sequence of:
- Diagnosis, An analysis of the current performance of the livestock subsector, its potentials and constraints.
- Prescription. A creative phase in which programmes and policy options are formulated and designed to address identified constraints and potentials.
- Prognosis. A comparative (with and without) assessment of the likely impact and implications of the prescribed programmes and policy options.
The analytical process usually proceeds from the bottom up, that is, from the lowest production unit to its effects on the national economy, and contains an ex ante evaluation of ongoing as well as previous programmes and policy interventions. The process is interactive in that the results of any comparative assessment may require modifications to either the design or further analysis. The final result is the presentation of a series of development options along with a corresponding set of recommended actions and policies required if the options are to be implemented. Implicit in the success of any such exercise is a high degree of national "ownership" resulting from the maximum involvement of nationals in the complete sequence through such elements as rapid rural appraisals (RRAs), national consultancies and workshops and expert working groups.
With regard to livestock policy analysis and formulation, the concept of induced innovation (Hayami and Ruthan, 1985) is applied. According to this concept, the choice of technology is induced by a relative abundance of production factors, such as those introduced above, for example, in the case of livestock production. For a number of the effects that livestock production can have, such as those on the environment and on human health, no markets exist. These effects are referred to as market failures, or externalities, which can be both positive and negative. Where these externalities exist, such as in the case of waste disposal from intensive pork and poultry production, incentives or regulations are part of policies that aim to reflect more accurately the implicit value of a non-marketed commodity, such as human health or the environment. Incentives and regulations affect factor use as they infringe on factor prices and, thus, on technological choice.
The diagnosis phase
Livestock need to be placed within the overall context of the agricultural sector and the national economy as a whole. The first step is usually an inventory of the natural and economic resources available for livestock production: land availability and use (by agro-ecological zone); feed (crop residues, agro-industrial by-products, cereals, forages, dodders); animals (breeds, etc.); water; labour; capital; public infrastructure; and support services (marketing, input supply). Existing production methods and productivity, processing, storage and marketing all need to be assessed in relation to the available resources.
In many developing countries, traditional and commercial production systems exist alongside one another with little or no linkage between them. Industrial systems of poultry, pig and, to a lesser extent, dairy production are demand-driven and responsive to changing market conditions, due, in part, to their short productive cycles and a wide and varying range (in price and availability) of potential feeds. Conversely, traditional ruminant production systems are inelastic in supply and sometimes even respond inversely to price increases, as was evident in the negative beef supply response observed in Latin America (Jarvis, 1986) and in southern Africa (Doran, Low and Kemp, 1979).
A number of macroeconomic policies also have direct and indirect impacts on livestock production. Pricing policies - often through the manipulation of exchange rates - wages and interest rates determine the costs and returns of livestock production. Fiscal policies govern government expenditures on, for example, rural infrastructures and producer or consumer subsidies. Monetary policy determines the availability and cost of agricultural credit, while trade policies (tariffs, quotas and export subsidies) regulate the import (produce and raw material) and export of livestock products and animal feeds. Institutional structures have a bearing on a wide range of support services that affect livestock production, such as marketing (marketing boards), quality and hygiene standards, extension and research, and agricultural education. The balance between private and public ownership of livestock-related services is becoming a critical issue, especially as extended public services prove to be increasingly inefficient and costly to run. These macroeconomic and sectoral policies need to be analysed as to their relevance to livestock production; incentives and/or disincentives to livestock production as they affect relative abundancy of production factors; and adequacy in view of likely future developments.
In addition to these broad economic policies, countries usually pursue more specific sectoral policies that may or may not be interrelated with the overall policy framework. These policies usually refer to issues such as: land tenure; input supplies and pricing (feed industry, veterinary supplies, genetic resources); labour supply and wages; specific livestock credits; marketing of livestock products; product processing facilities; and capacity and performance of extension, training and research institutions.
On a microlevel, policies may be analysed using econometric methods for farm household data, integrated farm household models, mathematical programming or a policy analysis matrix (FAO, 1994).
Livestock and the environment: finding a balance
In cooperation with eight different donors, FAO is leading a multidonor study entitled "Interactions between livestock production systems and the environment global perspectives and prospects". It addresses, as a follow-up to the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), the issues of livestock-environment interaction. The objective of the study is to assess the major positive and negative interactions between livestock production systems and natural resources. The full report will be ready by the end of 1995.
The study's perspective is global, covering a range of representative livestock production systems in both developing and developed countries. Eleven production systems have been identified using a classification of agro-ecological zones and land use, which were then grouped into mixed farming systems, pastoral or extensive grazing systems and systems of landless intensive livestock production
For each of these system groups, livestock-environment interactions are rated for a number of interaction domains, including range utilization, wildlife diversity, crop-livestock interactions, waste disposal from - production (manure) and from processing (slaughterhouses, tanneries, dairies), methane emissions and domestic animal diversity. In addition, more indirect interactions, such as those related to concentrate feed demand and livestock-induced deforestation, are also appraised.
A number of the case-studies presented were developed to illustrate the livestock-environment interactions and impacts that have been observed. These case-studies will also explore approaches that can be implemented either to reduce environmental degradation or to enhance the process of building more stable production systems.
It can be concluded that product) on systems vary considerably in their impact on the environment. Most beneficial effects are found in mixed farming systems, whereas landless systems are facing a range of environmental problems, mostly related to waste and resource use. Pastoral systems are mostly environmentally balanced, but this equilibrium is endangered as demographic pressure persists. Within production systems, production intensity is a major factor determining the nature of livestock-environment interactions.
Livestock production, systems. Within identified farming systems, farm households can be defined according to their available (or lack of) resources, production patterns, productivity and income. Such analysis is usually derived from diagnostic surveys such as RRAs and farm management budgeting (FMB). The breakdown of a livestock subsector into various production systems is justified given the differences that exist in available resources and applied technologies, as well as in primary products and their uses (subsistence or market-oriented), making it easier to deal with typologies. It is at this level where most development efforts are concentrated, and in the majority of countries this usually entails a breakdown of the livestock subsector into production systems broadly based on agro-ecological zones and socio-economic patterns. Livestock production systems are basically a subset of farming systems (Ruthenberg, 1980), although their analysis must comprise the whole farm household.
Available feedstuffs may be classified by their physical properties (dry matter, texture, fibre content), chemical properties (protein, energy) or origin (on-farm, purchased, communal). Inadequate feed intake and/or unbalanced diets are usually the primary production constraint. In addition, feed is also a major cost component, especially in the more intensive production systems. Available feed resources need to be carefully assessed, therefore, with estimated feed requirements in mind.
Livestock resources consist of various species; their breeds and genetic potential, herd composition and ownership are the predominant determinants of a production system. These factors change as production systems become more an integral part of the economy. With increasing commercialization, productivity and demand, there is a move from predominantly resource-driven systems to those primarily demand-driven.
Production systems may also be classified according to their main product(s) - meat, milk, eggs, manure and wool/fibre - as well as by services such as draught, transport and breeding. Systems may be further differentiated based on a scale ranging from "extensive" to "intensive", determined largely by their input-output relationships.
Livestock and their products fulfill different and often complementary functions. Apart from the marketed outputs, these include inputs to crop production (draught power and manure) and home consumption (subsistence), as well as their asset function and socio-cultural importance. At the farm level, therefore, livestock must be viewed in the context of the overall farm-household system, and the complex interactions involved must be understood technically as well as economically and socially. Where livestock are an integral part of the farm household economy, flow products (draught, manure, milk), risk alleviation, capital accumulation and the utilization of family labour with low opportunity costs are frequently the dominant production objectives. This is often in direct contrast to state objectives, which favour end-products (meat, hides, skins), and has been one reason why so many government livestock development initiatives have failed.
Strategy and programme formulation
A development strategy needs to anticipate and identify those forces that drive a particular livestock production system and the subsector as a whole. These can include population growth, market development (urbanization and income growth), technological change and a changing resource base. An understanding of the direction and speed with which these factors may change, both at the sectoral and farm levels, is necessary so that future programmes can respond accordingly. As has been stressed, technological choice depends on the relative abundance of production factors, such as labour, land and capital.
Implicit in this process is the development of "what if" scenarios to anticipate the likely implications of any change. For demand-driven production systems, the variables usually include national and per caput incomes, population and population growth, product prices and price and income elasticities. For resource-driven production systems, trend projections that take account of anticipated changes in factor proportions, advances in technology and likely increases (decreases) in productivity and resource availability are required. Any gap between supply and demand will have to be met either by expanding commercial production or by imports. The construction of scenarios is very often assisted by the use of computerized models (Hallam, 1983); FAO has recently produced an updated and expanded version of this sectoral model.
The first step is to develop the "without" intervention scenario by projecting future production and consumption trends. This will indicate gaps in supply, overuse of natural resources and import requirements, among other things. The next step is the formulation of development pathways (a combination of technical and institutional interventions) that address identified constraints, opportunities and any comparative advantages. Interventions then need to be evaluated under "with" and "without" scenarios, which involves sensitivity analysis of the critical variables as well as an assessment of social and cultural acceptability. Historically this has primarily been a top-down approach that has failed to take account of the aspirations and production objectives of producers, resulting in the poor performance of so many livestock development programmes. It is important, therefore, to ensure the active participation of all interested parties (usually easier said than done!) in the formulation process.
For animal production, possible programmes and policy interventions include the following broad classifications:
- On-farm interventions, adapted to specific agro-ecological conditions and production systems. These interventions commonly aim at increasing the availability or utilization of local feeds, control of economically important diseases (internal and external parasites) and/or improved housing and management.
- Institutional changes, including the structure and function of support services covering input supply, research, extension and training, processing and marketing and credit. Institutional programmes often complement technical interventions and aim at providing a support framework for livestock production that should be both cost-effective and congruent with overall government policies. The concept of "private" and "public" good will increasingly determine who will pay for such services.
- Genetic improvement programmes aimed at improving the livestock resource base. Options include within-breed selection of adapted indigenous breeds, substitution with exotic breeds or cross-breeding. The choice largely depends on the production system, its objectives and the resources at its disposal. Experience has shown serious misjudgement with policies aimed at importing exotic breeds with a corresponding neglect of indigenous breeds in many developing countries. Whatever breeding programme is adopted, equal attention needs to be given to the dissemination of improved genetic material. Dissemination concerns the institutional aspects as well as the choice of biotechnology, such as artificial insemination and embryo transfer.
- Animal health programmes aimed at limiting the impact of disease on animal production. Policy issues concern who will provide and pay for such services. Foremost is the need to control and protect (quarantine) the national livestock resource from major epizootic diseases, such as rinderpest, which is clearly a "public" good. Disease monitoring, veterinary investigation and legislation (public health and meat inspection) also fall within the public domain. On the other hand, control of diseases that cause production losses, for example, helminthiasis, is primarily a "private" good and determined on grounds of cost effectiveness. In this case, institutional policies that encourage the provision of private clinical services are required.
- Processing and marketing policies related to investment in the necessary infrastructure that enables livestock products to safely supply existing demands as well as those of the future. Such specific issues as the design of structures, equipment, training and quality, along with the question of the degree of state intervention (marketing boards, etc.) in the market, must also be addressed.
Impact assessment
The predictive phase of the strategy design and planning process examines the various policy options and their implications in light of the government's broader development objectives. Strategy impact assessments usually address issues such as:
- economic efficiency;
- distribution and equity considerations (of both costs and benefits);
- stability (food supply, income, export earnings, etc.) and risk considerations;
- sustainability (environmental, financial and institutional);
- conformity with government objectives.
This is primarily a "bottom-up" procedure looking at the performance of the individual animal through to the production systems and finally the subsector as a whole. At the production system level, interventions can be assessed in terms of their economic, social and environmental impacts on households. It is at this level where interventions that are usually aimed at increasing productivity (mortality, fertility, carcass weights, growth rates, milk yield, etc.) have to be shown to be both technically and financially viable. The results of these production system assessments may well necessitate changes in the off-farm elements of the proposed programme, such as marketing, processing, finance, extension and research.
Programme and policy implementation will also have implications at the sectoral and country levels. And some of these implications will have an impact on programme implementation as well, where they relate to the capacity of the ancillary services and industries to support and service the proposed development. These can be manipulated through price, monetary and trade policies, institutional reform and land regulations, which are mostly under direct government control. Those under private control can only be encouraged through supportive action. The impact of a successful outcome of the proposed programmes also needs to be assessed. Increased production will have an impact on income, consumption and labour (availability and productivity), as well as consequences for the rest of the agricultural system. In its involvement in this assessment process, FAO can draw on its international experience to help avoid mistakes and to benefit from successes elsewhere.
As a result of the impact assessment, a set of development options can be presented to the government for consideration. Each option should be accompanied by a summary description, along with its likely impact and implications. It is the government that will make the final choices as to whether or not on certain strategies should be implemented and whether or not external assistance is necessary; ideally, the major donors would have participated in the review process.
Conclusions
Livestock production has grown faster than agricultural production in most developing countries, and this trend is likely to continue with growth rates over the next 20 years estimated at 4.5 percent per annum. Historically, growth has come primarily from the expansion of livestock numbers rather than an increase in productivity. If this trend continues, it will put tremendous pressure on the available feed resources - even assuming substantial progress in feed conversion efficiency - and this probably will be the major challenge facing livestock planners.
The development of livestock in many developing countries is constrained by minimal public-sector investment and inefficient and poorly coordinated support services, however. This situation can, in part, be attributed to a lack of any consistent strategy for livestock development, which is exacerbated by inadequate analytical tools and a lack of information on which to base decision-making.
Clearly, increased livestock production will depend ultimately on the adoption of appropriate technology, improved support services, market access and infrastructural development to stimulate increased productivity. However, there must be a framework of coherent policies and development strategies that facilitate such development and ensure that the full potential of livestock in developing countries is exploited. FAO, with its unique collection of expertise and development experience, is ideally placed to assist member countries in reviewing and exploring the options for developing their livestock resources.
Bibliography
Behnke, R.H., Scoones, I. & Kerven, C., eds. 1993. Range ecology at disequilibrium, new models of natural variability and pastoral adaptation in African savannas. London, UK, Overseas Development Institute.
Doran, M.W., Low, A.R.C. & Kemp, R.L. 1979. Cattle as a store of wealth in Swaziland: implications for livestock development in eastern and southern Africa. Am. J. Agric. Econ., 61: 41-47.
FAO. 1994. Methods of microlevel analysis for agricultural programmes and policies: a guideline for policy analysts. Rome, FAO.
Hallam, D. 1983. Livestock development planning: a quantitative framework. CAS Paper 12, May 1983. Reading, UK, Centre for Agricultural Strategy.
Hayami, Y. & Ruthan, V.W. 1985. Agricultural development: an international perspective. Revised ed. Baltimore, MD, USA, Johns Hopkins University Press.
Jarvis, L.S. 1986. Livestock development in Latin America. Washington, DC, USA, World Bank.
Ruthenberg, H. 1980. Farming systems in the tropics. 3rd ed. Oxford, UK, Clarendon Press. 424 pp.
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http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/V8180T/v8180T07.htm
Livestock - a driving force for food security and sustainable development
R. Sansoucy
The author is Senior Officer, FAO Feed Resource Group.
"Development will bring food security only if it is people-centred, if it is environmentally sound, if it is participatory, and if it builds local and national capacity for self-reliance. These are the basic characteristics of sustainable human development."
- James Gustave Speltz (UNDP, 1994)
Although food availability has increased along with the growing human population over the last 30 years, there are still 800 million people suffering from malnutrition. This problem is not only the result of insufficient food production and inadequate distribution, but also of the financial inability of the poor to purchase food of reasonable quality in adequate quantities to satisfy their needs (FAO, 1993a).
Livestock production constitutes a very important component of the agricultural economy of developing countries, a contribution that goes beyond direct food production to include multipurpose uses, such as skins, fibre, fertilizer and fuel, as well as capital accumulation. Furthermore, livestock are closely linked to the social and cultural lives of several million resource-poor farmers for whom animal ownership ensures varying degrees of sustainable farming and economic stability.
The importance of livestock in the agricultural sector has been emphasized in a number of FAO publications, notably, Livestock production: a world perspective (FAO, 1982), The role of ruminant livestock in food security in developing countries (FAO, 1992), Livestock and improvement of pasture, feed and forage (FAO, 1993a) and Strategies for sustainable animal agriculture in developing countries (FAO, 1993b).
This article does not attempt to be comprehensive, but rather aims at emphasizing the importance of both direct and indirect contributions of livestock to food security and sustainable development at a global level.
1. Population statistics 1960 and 1990 - Statistiques dmographiques 1960 et 1990 - Estadsticas * poblacin, 1960 y 1990
Human and livestock populations have both grown considerably over the last three decades, although at different rates (Table 1). The major differences are found between developed and developing countries. Since 1960 the total human population has increased by 75 percent, but developing-country populations have grown by 97 percent, compared with 28 percent in the industrialized world. All categories of livestock have increased in number as well, with a much greater increase for monogastric animals (pigs and poultry) than for ruminants. Ruminant populations have grown at about half the rate of the human population, while small ruminant populations (sheep and goats) have only increased in developing countries. The pig and poultry populations, however, have grown about one-and-a-half to two times that of the human population, and are three to four times greater in developing countries than they are in developed countries.
The world population is expected to increase from 5.4 billion to at least 7.2 billion within the next two decades, mainly in developing countries. This increase in human population, with the resulting increase in pressure on land and changes in composition of the livestock population, will have a major effect on both available natural resources and future demand for commodities, and this will consequently determine the type of livestock feeding and production systems to be adopted.
official statistics tend to underestimate the overall contribution of animals since they generally underestimate or ignore the multipurpose role livestock play in food and agricultural production, as well as in the social life of small-scale farmers in developing countries.
Resource management
To feed the growing human population, more land will need to be devoted to the cultivation of food and cash crops and, being a finite resource, this will reduce its availability for pasture and fodder, as has already occurred in Asia (Table 2). On the other hand, increased food and cash crops will make available more crop residues and agro-industrial by-products, many of which represent valuable animal feed resources for which there is known technology to support increased levels of production. It is clear that, in order to maintain food production, the efficiency of resource utilization must be increased and alternatives - such as marine and freshwater fish culture - must be developed.
2. Population, land availability and output in developing countries.
The importance of animals as an efficient and economic means of food production has been challenged, as have its effects on the environment. These concerns have been expressed on a number of issues, notably:
- Competition with alternative land uses and with the use of cereals (and some roots and tubers) as animal feed or for human consumption.
- Competition for carbohydrate and protein sources.
- Inability to meet national targets for animal proteins.
- Only a few large investments in livestock development projects have been marginally successful in increasing productivity and these have had a limited impact on agriculture.
- Inadequate demonstration of how livestock can play a key role in the development of sustainable agriculture in different agro-ecosystems, and the failure to transfer appropriate technologies. In particular, most of the increase in animal products has come from an increase in animal numbers rather than from an increase in individual-animal productivity.
- Resource degradation and environmental damage caused by deforestation, overgrazing and pollution.
- Contribution to global warming (methane from ruminants represents 2.5 percent of total greenhouse gases).
- Pollution from concentrations of intensive animal production enterprises.
Many of these problems are a result of the inability to identify appropriate technologies and define strategies for livestock development that are applicable to individual agro-ecosystems. Often, technology is transferred from developed countries unmodified, rather than generating appropriate technologies within the developing countries themselves. Imported technologies have almost always failed to overcome the constraints imposed on local farming systems or to meet the socio-economic requirements of the local farmers.
Careful analysis and assessment are required so that livestock development strategies can be reoriented towards better use of local resources, contribute more effectively to food security, improve the living standards of poor farmers and ensure sustainable animal agriculture development. The determining factors of this overall strategy include:
- political support for fair commodity prices and proposed strategies;
- better definition of the target recipients' needs;
- increased efficiency of use and management of natural resources;
- linking of production and post-production components to efficient infrastructure, services and marketing schemes;
- more appropriate policies for the use of common land and rangelands;
- improved capacity and commitment of national and international agricultural centres and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to implement strategies that contribute to the development of livestock production within specific agro-ecosystems/ecoregions.
In livestock production, the overriding considerations are the availability and efficient use of local natural resources. A successful livestock development strategy requires the formulation of resource management plans that complement the wider economic, ecological and sociological objectives. Particular attention needs to be given to land-use systems and to the natural resources required for improved livestock production. The strategy will also need to consider the social, cultural, political and institutional elements that affect the management of natural resources. On the policy side, issues relating to land use, common property, legislation, price policies, subsidies, levies, national priorities for livestock development and research capacity have to be addressed. Finally, the implementation of action programmes requires both technical and institutional support and, equally important, government commitment.
The direct role of livestock for food security
Livestock as an important food source
Trends in livestock food supply in developing countries. Livestock are important contributors to total food production. Moreover, their contribution increases at a higher rate than that of cereals (Table 3). Recent increases in livestock products appear to be even more spectacular than those achieved for cereals from the green revolution. Most notably, egg production has increased by 331 percent over the last two decades, compared with 127 percent for meat production, 78 percent for cereals and 113 percent for fish (equivalent to 58 percent of that of meat production).
4. Per caput consumption of meat, milk and fish in 1990.
By the year 2010, animal products are expected to contribute proportionally much more to the food supply than they do at present, since income determines the protein intake of people, particularly in urban areas. Of the different animal species, meat production from monogastric animals (poultry and pigs) has increased at a much higher rate than that from either small ruminants (sheep and goats) or large ruminants (cattle and buffaloes). While in 1970 ruminant and monogastric meat production rates were approximately equal, it is expected that by 2010 monogastrics may produce 2.4 times more meat than ruminants, providing that feed is available and affordable (Figure 1; Box 1).
Per capita consumption of animal products
Given the low per caput intake of animal products in developing countries compared with that in developed countries (Table 4), there is considerable potential for increasing consumption and, hence, production of animal products (milk and meat) in these countries. An enormous number of poor people in developing countries cannot afford to include animal products in their diets - they are vegetarians by necessity rather than by choice.
Per capita nutrient supply in developing countries
Calories. Animal products are primarily a source of proteins and essential amino acids, but when they are a major constituent of the human diet they also contribute a significant proportion of total calories. In developed countries they provide more than 30 percent of calories in the diet (Figure 2). In developing countries, however, this proportion is less than 10 percent, but they are a source of essential amino acids that balance the largely vegetable-based proteins.
Proteins. In developed countries, about 60 percent of the dietary protein supply is derived from animal products, which is higher than necessary for essential amino acids (Figure 2). This figure is only 22 percent in developing countries, which is less than desirable and takes no account of the skewed distribution in favour of the middle classes - the poor actually have a much lower protein intake. In these countries, where diets are composed of only a small number of staple foods, animal products are of great importance in preventing malnutrition as they are concentrated sources of the limited essential amino acids available in vegetable proteins of staple foods.
Fats. Excessive consumption of calories, particularly fat from animal products, is often the cause of human health problems, especially in wealthy societies. Figure 2 clearly demonstrates that excessive consumption of animal fat is not a problem for people in developing countries. In fact, animal fats complement an often-deficient calorie intake.
Livestock help to alleviate seasonal food variability. Even though milk production is seasonal and surpluses cannot be stored as easily as cereal grains, there are simple technologies that allow herders to keep milk products for weeks or months in the form of clarified butter, curds or various types of cheese. Animals, particularly small livestock, are slaughtered as the need arises. Meat preserved by drying, salting, curing and smoking can be used when other food sources are scarce.
1. Trends in meat production in developing countries.
2. Per caput nutrient supply - Apport d'lments nutritifs par habitant - Suministro * nutrientes por habitante
Livestock as a source of income
Animal products not only represent a source of high-quality food, but, equally important, they are a source of income for many small farmers in developing countries, for purchasing food as well as agricultural inputs, such as seed, fertilizers and pesticides.
At the national level, livestock food products represent 27 percent of the total agricultural output. This subsector has achieved the greatest growth in production over the last three decades, and it is expected that it will continue to grow faster than all other agricultural subsectors in the next 20 years (Table 5). The total value of milk and meat represents 3.5 times the value of wheat and rice and 2.8 times the value of fish (Table 6). In addition, there are various other products and services provided by livestock that are not accounted for in these statistics, but which would increase the total value of livestock considerably.
At farm level, cash can be generated regularly from direct sales of livestock products, such as milk, eggs and manure, occasionally from the sale of live animals, wool, meat and hides and from fees for draught power or transport services.
An important feature of dairy income is its regularity. India's dairy development programme Operation Flood has created cooperatives that pay daily for the milk delivered, thereby providing regular income to thousands of poor farmers. An FAO/United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) dairy project in Burkina Faso assisted 100 families in increasing their monthly income by about US$80, which is equivalent to an extra labour unit per family. In many countries, the provision of animal draught power services for cultivation, transportation and the pumping of irrigation water is an important source of income that is particularly beneficial to landless owners of cattle or buffalo.
Livestock also provide increased economic stability to the farm or household, acting as a cash buffer (small livestock) and as capital reserve (large animals), as well as a deterrent against inflation. In mixed-farming systems, livestock reduce the risks associated with crop production. They also represent liquid assets that can be realized at any time, adding further stability to the production system.
The importance of livestock as a source of income for poor farmers is illustrated by the example of the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh, which assists only the poorest segment of the population and provides about 50 percent of its loans for the purchase of livestock, mainly large ruminants for milk production and draught power.
Livestock as a generator of employment
At farm level, dairying is a labour-intensive activity, involving women in both production and marketing. Labour typically accounts for over 40 percent of total costs in smallholder systems. It has been estimated that for each 6 to 10 kg of additional milk processed per day in India, one working day is added for feeding and care. Data from Kenya show that smallholder production there is in the order of 25 kg per working day; similar levels were experienced on parastatal dairy farms in Zimbabwe.
Goat, sheep, poultry and rabbit husbandry, especially in backyard production systems, provides an important source of part-time job opportunities, particularly for landless women and children.
The livestock-product processing sector has also been identified as a contributor to employment generation and the reduction of rural depopulation. Small-scale milk processing/marketing is labour-intensive (50 to 100 kg per working day) and generates employment and income from the local manufacture of at least part of the equipment required. The meat sector also provides significant employment opportunities. Based on UN published data and experience from FAO projects, estimates have been made of labour requirements in small to medium-sized slaughter and meat processing operations (Table 7).
BOX 1
Do livestock of the rich eat the grain of the poor?
Almost 50 percent of the grains produced in the world are fed to livestock, yet there remain about 800 million people suffering from hunger and malnutrition mostly in the developing countries. Because surplus grains are produced in developed countries, it has been assumed that increasing livestock production will be based on grains at the expense of poor people. Is this true?
- About 85 percent of total grains fed to livestock throughout the world are fed to livestock in industrialized countries, but at an enormous environmental cost in terms of fossil fuel. Grain importation into developing countries has steadily increased, however, particularly to feed animals that are consumed by the minority higher-income sectors of society. The problem is twofold: first, the poor cannot afford to purchase these cereals because of their low income, and, second, the importation of grains distorts the market for locally produced feed resources.
- Because grains are widely available in developed, temperate countries, or because they have the wealth to import them, these countries can afford to use the grains to feed animals, especially as production costs do not include the imputed costs of soil erosion, loss of fertility and environmental degradation. Developing countries, which have neither the available grain resources nor the money to import them, should, however, follow the same philosophy for feeding their animals, that is, they should use their own locally available feed resources, not grains!
- Grains are not indispensable for feeding livestock. Historically, grains have been regarded as the most convenient, if not the only, way to feed monogastrics and even fatten ruminants. Subsidies to produce grains have assisted their use at the expense of feeding systems based on local resources. FAO has given high priority over the last 20 years to developing alternative feeding systems, for monogastrics as well as for ruminant animals, which make little or no use of grains. In five years, a project in China has made cropping zones become the most important producers of beef, using only urea-treated straw and cottonseed cake as supplements, with no use whatsoever of grains. Sugarcane juice, palm oil, sugar palm juice and cassava tubers have successfully been tested to replace grains in pig feeding in about 15 countries in the tropical Americas and Asia. Other local energy sources are being actively sought as alternatives to grains. |
Livestock as a supplier of production inputs for sustainable agricultural development
In mixed-farming systems, not only can farmers mitigate risks by producing a multitude of commodities, but they can also increase the productivity of both crops and animals in a more profitable and sustainable way. In this context, livestock can make a major contribution to the efficient use of available natural resources.
Livestock as a source of energy
Draught animal power. Bovines, equines, camelids and elephants are all used as sources of draught power for a variety of purposes, such as pulling agricultural implements, pumping irrigation water and skidding in forests. The current number of animals used for draught purposes is estimated at 400 million. Fifty-two percent of the cultivated area in developing countries (excluding China) is farmed using only draught animals and 26 percent using only hand tools (Gifford 1992). During the past ten years, there has been a 23-percent increase in the number of cattle and buffaloes used for draught purposes as well as for meat and milk production. During the same period, the number of equines (horses, mules and asses) used primarily for draught and transport has not changed significantly.
Compared with the use of tractors, animal power is a renewable energy source in many developing countries and is produced on the farm, with almost all the implements required made locally. On the other hand, 90 percent of the world's tractors and their implements are produced in industrialized countries and most of those used in developing countries (approximately 19 percent) have to be imported. Animal traction, therefore, avoids the drain of foreign exchange involved in the importation of tractors, spare parts and fuel.
Draught animals remain the most cost-effective power source for small and medium-scale farmers. Draught animal power can be even more economic when one bullock is used instead of a pair or when a (cross-bred) cow is used instead of a male, since it reduces the cost of maintaining the larger herd necessary to satisfy both replacement and milk production requirements.
It is expected that draught animal power will decline slightly by the year 2000 (FAO, 1987) as will dependency on human power (Figure 3), but the contribution of draught animals will remain much more important than that of mechanical traction. Given their importance as major contributors to food crop production, as a risk-avoidance mechanism and as a source of income, greater efforts need to be devoted to promoting the wider and more efficient use of draught animals.
5. Major commodity groups in total gross agricultural production in 93 developing countries.
Dung for fuel. In many countries, cow dung is highly valued as fuel for cooking and heating, reducing expenditures for fuelwood or fossil fuels. It represents the major fuel supply for household use by millions of farmers in Asia, Africa and in parts of the Near East and Latin America. In India alone, 300 million tonnes of dung are used for fuel every year. The collection and drying of dung for cooking generates income for women. It is also used directly as plaster and other building materials, while its ash can be used as fertilizer.
Biogas production. Biogas production from manure is an excellent substitute for fossil fuel or fuelwood for farmers in tropical countries. The best manure for these purposes comes from (in descending order) pigs, cattle, horses, camels and poultry (Kumar and Biswas, 1982). Twenty-five kilograms of fresh cow dung produces about 1 m
3 of biogas. Simple low-cost plastic biodigesters have recently been developed in Cambodia, the United Republic of Tanzania and Viet Nam through a number of FAO/Technical Cooperation Programme (TCP) projects. On-farm biogas production reduces the workload of women by eliminating wood collection or fuel purchasing. It is person-friendly because of its convenience and increased hygiene, and it also provides a number of services, such as lighting, warm water and heating. Biogas can also be used to drive machinery such as water pumps. Effluent from biodigesters can be recycled as fertilizer - with even better results than the original manure (Talukder, Ali and Latif, 1988) - or as a fish feed, or it may be used to grow azolla and duckweed. Biogas technology has been successfully adopted by millions of farmers in developing countries; about 25 million people use it in China alone (Marchaim, 1992). New simple technology should be promoted to extend biogas development. Biodigestion has positive public-health aspects, particularly where toilets are coupled with the biodigester, and the anaerobic conditions kill pathogenic organisms as well as digest toxins, for example, botulinum toxin. In China, biogas (CO
2+CH
4) from dung has also been used to control insects in stored grains using the anaerobic reaction, without adverse effects on grain germination (Zhin and Pan, 1983).
Livestock as a source of fertilizer and soil conditioner
Nutrient recycling is an essential component of any sustainable farming system. The integration of livestock and crops allows for efficient nutrient recycling. Animals use the crop residues, such as cereal straws, as well as maize and sorghum stovers and groundnut haulms as feed. The manure produced can be recycled directly as fertilizer. One tonne of cow dung contains about 8 kg N. 4 kg P
2O
5 and 16 kg K
2O (Ang, 1994). The chemical composition of manure varies, however, according to the animal species (poultry manure appears to be a more efficient fertilizer than cow manure) and also to the nature of their diet. For example, farmers in Cambodia and the Niger have observed that they obtain more rice grain when they use manure from animals fed on urea-treated straw (because of its higher nitrogen content) than when they use that derived from animals fed on untreated straw. It has been estimated that, in the semiarid tropics, less than 6 percent of the cropped area receives an average application of 10 tonnes of manure per hectare every year. In the humid tropics, up to 12 percent of the cropped area may be manured at this level. In addition to the direct contribution of plant nutrients, manure provides important organic matter to the soil, maintaining its structure, water retention and drainage capacity. The value of manure is so well-recognized that some farmers keep livestock primarily for this purpose.
The cultivation of legume fodders and trees, for example, in alley farming systems, also contributes to the enrichment of soils through nitrogen fixation. Soybeans in the humid tropics can supply 40 kg of nitrogen per hectare, although this contribution varies considerably with the species.
In systems using sugar cane as livestock feed, for example, in Colombia and Viet Nam, it has been demonstrated that the recycling of dead leaves into the soil (instead of burning them) favours the fixation of nitrogen by bacteria and reduces weed growth and water evaporation, thus increasing the yield of the subsequent harvest.
Livestock and weed control
Livestock, particularly sheep, are efficient in controlling weeds. They are used in many countries in the Mediterranean basin to reduce forest undergrowth so that the risk of fire during summer is diminished. In rubber and oil-palm plantations in Malaysia, the integration of livestock to utilize the vegetative ground cover under the tree canopy has been shown to increase overall production and save up to 40 percent of the cost of weed control (Chen et al., 1988). Similarly, sheep have recently been used to control weeds in sugar-cane fields in Colombia (Carte Asolucerna, 1994), suppressing the cost of herbicides, reducing by half the total cost of weed control and providing an additional income from meat production. Such systems also safeguard the environment and avoid chemical pollution while supplying additional organic material to the soil.
3. Sources of power in agriculture.
Women play an important role in livestock development, particularly in collecting and carrying feeds...
... and in milking and taking care of animals (Viet Nam).
Livestock-recycled secondary products, household and industrial wastes
Not only can manure be recycled for biogas and fertilizer, but it can also be a valuable source of feed for other animal species. For example, poultry manure is commonly used for ruminant feeding and poultry and pig manures can be used to generate algae as a feed for fish.
By-products such as slaughterhouse wastes, when adequately processed, make a good source of protein (offal and viscera) and mineral (bones) supplements in animal feeds.
In developing countries, household wastes are commonly fed to pigs and small animals in backyard farming systems. In urban and pert-urban areas, restaurant and catering wastes can be readily processed for pigs, as is done in Cuba.
Industrial fish waste creates pollution around canning plants. The common practice is to dry it, at a very high cost, in order to produce fish-meal, which is then usually exported to developed countries. Preservation of fish waste in molasses has proved to be an option that is technically and economically feasible for poor farmers. Such recycling makes animal agriculture systems more sustainable and environmentally sound (Box 2).
Utilization of marginal lands and crop residues by livestock
In the vast semi-arid or arid areas where crop production is extremely risky, livestock can use vegetation that would otherwise be wasted and convert it to valuable, high-quality products. However, these are environmentally fragile areas. Over the centuries, pastoralists established complex management systems that were sustainable until the relatively recent dramatic increases in population and subsequent livestock density. Overgrazing is the main threat to these areas, and a holistic approach to resource management is necessary to avoid their permanent and irreversible degradation.
Crop residues, such as straw, are more efficiently utilized through ruminant feeding, including the production and use of manure and possibly biogas, rather than by burning them, creating pollution and contributing to global warming, or ploughing them back into the soil to improve its structure and water retention. Several hundred million head of cattle and buffaloes are fed throughout the year on rice and cereal straws.
Non-food attributes of livestock as a factor of sustainable agriculture
Increasing animal production saves foreign exchange
At present, developing countries are major importers of animal feeds (mainly coarse grains) as well as meat and dairy products. The cost of importing animal feeds into developing countries is estimated at between US$10 billion and $15 billion per year (Figure 4). Although exports of animal feeds are not negligible, a large proportion of them are oilseed cakes. Being an important source of bypass protein, the cakes could be put to better use locally to improve production from the national herd, which, in turn, would reduce imports of animal products.
The trade of meat products is better balanced, as imports and exports have followed similar annual trends, as illustrated by the parallel curves plotted in Figure 5. Globally, however, these data mask the fact that exports are made by relatively few, high-producing countries only. There is still substantial potential for increasing local production to save foreign exchange from import substitution and to increase rural incomes.
The situation regarding the importation of dairy products into developing countries is critical. Imports have dramatically increased during the last three decades, while exports have remained negligible (Figure 6). The prospects for local dairy production have recently become more favourable, however, following the reduction of milk production subsidies in western developed countries and the introduction of more realistic exchange rates under structural adjustment programmes. These recent changes have provided many developing countries with the opportunity to develop their own milk industries, primarily through small-scale production, which will have a major impact on different levels of cash income.
BOX 2
Do livestock contribute to environmental degradation?
Livestock are often accused of contributing to soil erosion in different ways. One classic example is the deforestation in the Amazon to produce grazing land, which has attracted much attention from ecologists and the mass media. Yet clearly it is not the animals that cut down the trees! The responsibility lies with the business people who - aided and abetted by government subsidies - cause irreversible damage by destroying the forests to plant pastures for short-term financial gain. Another example is that of the long-term overgrazing of semi-arid rangelands, which has lead increasingly to desertification. It is well known, however, that sound resource management could avoid this deterioration of the environment while maintaining a productive system.
If livestock are managed in an appropriate way, they can even contribute to the reduction of soil erosion. The use of perennial fodder trees and high biomass fodders (sugar cane) and the establishment of fodder hedgerows on the contour provide excellent protection against erosion and should be established practices.
Agro-sylvo-pastoral systems in semi-arid areas are a viable proposition for the protection of the fragile soils of these regions. Multipurpose trees contribute to the protection of the soil, as well as to animal and energy production, and store carbon that would otherwise contribute to atmospheric carbon dioxide.
It is also a criticism of ruminant production that the animals contribute to the greenhouse effect, since they produce methane as an end-product of rumen digestion. It should be recognized, however, that ruminant populations have increased only moderately compared with those of other species, and that their contribution is estimated at just 2.5 percent of the total greenhouse gases (Leng, 1993). Gas emissions from cars and industry are far greater and have increased at a much higher rate. There are two ways to reduce methane emission from livestock: by introducing an appropriate diet supplementation that could reduce ruminant methane production per unit of milk or meat by a factor of 4 to 6, and by favouring the production of meat from monogastric animals.
The third complaint about livestock is pollution resulting from accumulated excrete and nitrite-contaminated groundwater. This is primarily a problem with intensive, industrialized production systems. It can be reduced by implementing manure processing technologies as well as nutrition and feeding strategies that reduce the amount of nitrogen and phosphorus in the diet of animals. It could also be controlled by limiting the size of such enterprises to that which allows excrete to be easily accommodated on neighbouring lands or used for fertilizer products. Smallholders usually cause less pollution than large intensive units. |
Livestock for investment and savings
In the rural areas of many developing countries financial services such as credit, banking and insurance are virtually non-existent. In these areas, livestock play an important role as a means of saving and capital investment, and they often provide a substantially higher return than alternative investments. A combination of small and large livestock that can be sold to meet petty-cash requirements to cover seasonal consumption deficits or to finance larger expenditures represents a valuable asset for the farmer.
Other products and functions
Hides and skins. The yield of hides and skins in relation to the overall weight of the slaughtered animal is approximately 6.5 percent for cattle and 10 percent for small ruminants. Pig skins are not considered a by-product since they are usually used as food.
World production of hides and skins increased significantly between the 1960s and the 1980s, with bovine hides reaching 1.8 million tonnes (55-percent increase) and sheep and goat skins up to 220 000 tonnes (5-percent increase). Over the same period, however, production in developing countries fell; bovine hides dropped by 50 percent (down to 47 000 tonnes) and sheep and goat skins were reduced by 25 percent (down to 68 000 tonnes). Since the number of cattle and small ruminants slaughtered has not declined in developing countries, it must be concluded that hides and skins are not being fully utilized. FAO has already initiated efforts to improve flaying techniques to increase hide and skin quality. The world market price for cattle has varied between US$1.50 and $2 per kilogram over the last ten years, which ought to give adequate incentive for the production of better quality raw hides and skins.
Other functions. Often livestock keeping has considerable social and cultural- significance, which may be the main reason for keeping animals in many societies. It is not always possible to attach monetary value to many of these roles. Nevertheless, they cannot be ignored, since animals for cultural or religious events may command very high prices.
4. Value of feed grain imports and exports in developing countries, 1961 to 1989.
5. Value of meat imports and exports in developing countries, 1961 to 1989.
6. Value of dairy imports and exports in developing countries, 1961 to 1985.
Cow dung is an important source of fuel in many developing countries (India).
Manure may be used to produce energy: here a simple plastic biodigester in use (the Philippines.
Draught animal power represents a great contribution by the livestock sector to the crop sector: oxen pulling a cart in a big sugar-cane plantation (the Dominican Republic).
Conclusions
The following conclusions (see also Box 3) are drawn from this review of the role of animals in food production and agricultural development:
The contribution of animals to both agricultural and overall economic development has not been adequately evaluated. Official statistics grossly underestimate the contribution of livestock since many important non-food outputs - most of which are difficult to quantify in monetary terms - are excluded.
Improved efficiency of animal agriculture, with its various commodities and service products, is crucial to achieving sustainable agricultural development and food security, particularly in low-income, food-deficit countries.
The role of animals in food and agricultural development programmes is underrated almost everywhere throughout the world despite the increasing demand, especially in developing countries, for all the different animal products and services.
A prerequisite for the sustainable development of animal agriculture is the identification, testing under local conditions and promotion of appropriate technologies that utilize local and affordable resources.
Policies, infrastructure and support services enabling such technologies to succeed and reach small-scale farmers must be established.
The integration of livestock and agriculture increases both the short-term benefits and longer-term sustainability.
The livestock sector is both multifaceted and flexible enough to be able to react to changes in the national economy. Species of monogastrics and ruminants are available that are adapted to different local conditions and are able to utilize local resources to produce valuable products and services.
Greater emphasis should be given to monogastric animals, as they are the main suppliers of meat and have been largely neglected in development programmes. Care must be taken to use alternative feeds that do not compete with human food. The importance of ruminants must not be forgotten, however, and particular attention is required to develop their role as a source of draught power.
Greater attention should be given to the provision of facilities and credit that benefit the small-scale producer, rather than major investments in institutions and facilities, such as big slaughterhouses, dairy plants and feedmills, which are usually oversized, overstaffed and overequipped.
BOX 3
Do all livestock projects fail?
Livestock projects have a bad reputation among development banks and institutions, which have become reluctant to fund new projects. It has been stated that: livestock eat cereals that would be better used for feeding people; livestock cause environmental deterioration; livestock products are not indispensable in the diet; livestock projects are not viable in economic terms.
However, provided that the right technologies are identified and applied, taking into account the local constraints, and that the appropriate support in expertise, the logistics for the supply of inputs and the marketing of animal products are ensured, livestock projects have proved to be very profitable, in both economic and social terms, on many occasions. The following are some spectacular examples of successful projects.
- Operation Flood in India, which promotes dairy development among small or landless farmers, has established a modern and efficient dairy industry in that country. Similarly, in Uganda, a dairy project has successfully developed milk production around Kampala under difficult conditions, while small cheese-making units in the Niger have provided several hundred women with jobs and income. -
The beef-fattening project in the Hebei and Henan provinces of China. By using local resources, such as cereal straw treated with urea, adequately supplemented with cottonseed cake, the farmers of these provinces have become the most important beef producers of China. Strategies for on-farm testing and field support activities were similar (but applied on a much larger scale!) to those implemented in another successful beef-fattening project in northern Tunisia in the 1970s.
- The New World Screw worm (NWS) project in North Africa which, using environmentally safe biotechnology, successfully eradicated this threatening pest from the region in less than four years, has been a remarkable example of efficient organization and cooperation between donors and United Nations executing agencies.
It is now more widely recognized that livestock projects are as successful as any other agricultural projects, if not more so. |
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Veterinary education for public and private practice and research in developing countries
R. Ruppanner
This article was compiled by
R. Ruppanner, Senior Officer (Animal Health), Animal Health Service, Animal Production and Health Division, FAO, Rome, Italy.
"Since the main function of veterinary education is to supply veterinarians and animal health assistants (AHAs) in the number and of the quality required, an assessment of veterinary manpower requirements is essential to meaningful planning of veterinary education and to decisions on the network of training institutions and their capacities. "
This statement taken from the 1988 FAO Animal Production and Health Policy Paper Education, training and applied research for the livestock sector set the stage for an FAO/WHO (World Health Organization) Expert Consultation on veterinary education held at FAO Headquarters, Rome, Italy, in September 1993.
Fifteen internationally recognized authorities (Box 1) on veterinary education were invited to assist FAO and WHO officers in producing recommendations to serve as international guidelines for veterinary education, training programmes and facilities. After briefly considering the state of the art relative to each of the five major issues raised, the experts were asked to suggest ways and means of identifying and overcoming any possible constraints. This procedure proved most effective and generated over 60 recommendations.
The experts' findings leading to these recommendations are summarized in this article.
Veterinary labour planning
An important point to keep in mind when redefining and updating veterinary education is the recent trend towards privatization of veterinary practices in developing countries with the aim of enlarging the services available to small farmers.
A method for planning veterinary labour needs based on the number of livestock units (LSU) has already been used in some countries more or less successfully. Not only does this method allow comparisons between countries, but it can also help to highlight the influence of different systems of husbandry. Its application to predict the number of veterinarians required per thousands of LSUs needs careful consideration, however. It must also be recognized that there are a number of additional factors to be included in the equation, such as public recognition of veterinary skills in related areas; growth of small animal practices; increasing involvement in public health; tighter control in international trade; public interest in animal welfare and ethical matters; and the increasing number of women in the profession. These factors came to light as a result of miscalculations in recent years by veterinary associations in Australia and the United Kingdom.
Other factors that are applicable, also in the context of developing countries, are the size of the human population; gross national product; total value of the livestock industry; affordable needs; competing, supporting and auxiliary workforce available; and political imperatives.
Estimating the number of veterinarians needed is not all that is required. The knowledge and skills they must have in order for the profession to be equal to its task must also be considered. In the context of developing national programmes, it is important that national veterinary associations play a strong role in determining professional development. "This means far more than forming an association for meetings and exchanging information with colleagues, important though that is; an association should also have credibility at national level and command sufficient respect to be invited by the appropriate government department to give its views on all animal health and production matters [including education]." This quote echoes a sentiment that was repeatedly heard during the expert consultation and emerged as one of the main recommendations.
FAO animal health experts with nomad karakul sheep breeders in Afghanistan.
Animal health and husbandry students at class in lay assistants' school in Kabul Afghanistan.
Student studying charts on animal diseases in Ethiopia - Un tudiant regarde attentivement des planches illustrant les maladies des animaux en Ethiopie - Un estudiante examina grficos sobre las enfermedades animales en Etiopa
The idea of establishing minimum requirements for veterinary education throughout the world is not new; it has been discussed in almost every informal international meeting of educators for many years. In 1987, the World Association of Veterinary Educators (WAVE) was created under the auspices of the World Veterinary Association (WVA) at the time of the XXIIIrd World Veterinary Congress, in Montreal, Canada. As one of its first actions, WAVE created a steering committee on veterinary education with the objectives of establishing a survey of veterinary education throughout the world and proposing recommendations to help teaching institutions achieve their goals, as well as establishing and maintaining expertise in the area of veterinary education.
The committee also assists WAVE in its efforts to coordinate globally the quality of veterinary degree studies in the world. Hence, its first task was to propose minimum requirements in veterinary education that not only had to meet certain standards but also had to have enough flexibility to be adapted to the various situations in the world. A draft of the minimum requirements was presented to the General Assembly of the World Veterinary Association and was adopted in May 1992.
It is clear that the minimum requirements were prepared by educators for educators without any formal consultation with international agencies or experts other than those on the WAVE Committee on Education and were intended to provide relevant authorities and teaching institutions throughout the world with a tool to help them produce better qualified veterinarians with high technical and professional standards. The role of the veterinarian varies, sometimes widely, from country to country, but the veterinary profession, like most other professions, is always an amalgam of technical skills and conceptual abilities; both are important and both are necessary. Awareness of the dangers inherent to the loss of one or the other of these attributes is critical.
The minimum requirements are essentially concerned with the professional level of education (doctorate in veterinary medicine), realizing, however, that professional education, postgraduate education and research are all linked together. It is also recognized that the minimum requirements will have to be revised and improved regularly, although the main challenge will be their implementation.
Neither WAVE nor WVA has coercive power or money to invest in improving the quality of veterinary education where needed, but they do have moral power. Hence, at its last meeting, the Steering Committee on Veterinary Education proposed that WVA implement a school certification programme with evaluation carried out by the teaching institutions themselves. This evaluation would be monitored and confirmed by volunteers from international organizations in the area, duly appointed for the purpose by the Veterinary Education Committee of the WVA. The certified status of a school, college or faculty would be granted by the Veterinary Education Committee and proclaimed by the General Assembly of the WVA.
The certified institutions would be identified as such in future editions of the World Directory of Veterinary Teaching Centres, published by WVA. It is anticipated/hat the prestige associated with this would be a good incentive for institutions to participate.
The wide diversity of conditions in the world makes the establishment of minimum requirements in veterinary education imperative yet difficult at the same time. As mentioned above, the objective of such requirements is to provide assistance in the training of skilled individuals to be useful in their part of the world. These requirements should not be used to classify veterinary teaching institutions in a hierarchical scale nor are they intended to replace the standards currently existing in the scientifically and technically more advanced parts of the world. Their sole purpose is to ensure a minimum level of quality training of veterinarians worldwide.
The minimum requirements for undergraduate veterinary education follow here.
A veterinary education institution must be of university level and meet the standards specified by the World Veterinary Association (WVA) in its accreditation system. The veterinary curriculum must be under the -immediate and sole direction of a veterinarian but non-veterinarians are not excluded from teaching. It must be adequately financed, housed, equipped and staffed.
The duration of the veterinary curriculum must extend over a period of at least four years - not including preveterinary training - during which a minimum of eight months of instruction is given each year The veterinary curriculum must cover in depth, and provide appropriate understanding of, the subject matters (Box 2) in relation to the various animal species and animal production - systems of importance in the area.
Appropriate library and audiovisual facilities as well as sufficient clinical, laboratory and practical training must be provided. Students must be properly supervised and evaluated throughout the course of their studies.
A veterinary education institution must be able to demonstrate that research activities are performed on its premises, contributing to the acquisition of new knowledge both at the applied and fundamental levels. A veterinary education institution must be able to assist veterinarians practicing in whatever position, in whichever area or country, to cope with quickly changing professional demands, by providing continuing education, for example.
The certification of a veterinary education institution meeting the above requirements should be made by an international organization, such as WVA or WAVE.
Veterinary education for private practice
The changes advocated to prepare graduates for a rewarding private veterinary practice vary from country to country depending on its level of economic development. In the developing world, most livestock industries are small to moderate. The veterinarian to serve in this type of setting would have to be a farm animal practitioner with much training in farming systems (dairy and beef cattle, sheep and goats), nutrition, disease prevention and control strategies, reproduction, including pregnancy diagnosis and artificial insemination, therapeutic and surgical services and vaccination schedules.
Veterinary curricula should be adjusted to achieve the new objectives and should include the subjects listed in Box 3.
Another matter that should also be given some consideration is companion animal practice, which is gradually becoming an issue in developing countries. This would concern dogs kept as pets or reliable guards, for example.
Veterinary education for public service
Traditional veterinarians in public service require many skills, some of which are provided by standard veterinary curricula, including good clinical and epidemiological skills, a thorough understanding of the principles of medicine, parasitology, microbiology, pathology and toxicology as well as an understanding of livestock production systems.
Also desirable, but not necessarily provided in detail at veterinary schools, are more general competencies such as good communication skills, both oral and written, and an understanding of rural sociology appropriate to the particular country, the adult learning process, extension methodology and the local legal and regulatory framework. Staff supervision and motivation is another important skill that is usually acquired on the job. Further special skills needed to cope with the emerging roles of government veterinarians are shown in Box 4.
BOX 3 - Veterinary curriculum for private practice
Production economics Commerce Farming systems
Extension methodologies, including farmer organizational development
Environmental managementManagement practices
Book- and record-keepingTopics such as poultry, pig and cattle pathology, computer-based ration formulation' meat handling and hygiene; and virology' etc. should be upgraded to provide the level of understanding of sophisticated technologies necessary for servicing modem livestock industries. |
These technologies use a combination of epidemiological, statistical and economic tools and must be underpinned by detailed knowledge of livestock and livestock product trading patterns as well as the behaviour of different disease agents in different livestock products.
Apart from specific veterinary roles in public service, there are a number of more general features of the public-policy environment that will impinge on veterinary education in the future, such as information-handling skills, computer usage, public accountability and an allied trend to legal action where individuals or companies perceive themselves to be often unjustly treated.
An increased educational level of the community gradually leads to a greater requirement to persuade people rather than to instruct them. Issues that are considered by veterinarians to be in the public interest must be justified clearly and broadly against competing priorities. Increasing concern worldwide for the environment and for the preservation of global biodiversity is creating new areas for veterinary involvement, particularly in the management of wildlife and endangered species.
It is also necessary for traditional veterinary practices and livestock production systems to be evaluated in terms of their impact on the environment, particularly in the area of waste management. Grazing management systems designed to provide sustainable production without damaging fragile ecosystems require abroad ecological and adaptive approach. A traditional veterinary education does not necessarily provide the best framework to develop this.
All these external features indicate a need for flexibility in designing veterinary curricula for a variety of reasons, including the rate of change and conflicts between global food production requirements and competition for scarce resources by the world's population. It is predicted widely that veterinary requirements will become more precise in the coming decades. The traditional veterinary education based originally on European models has served governments and the private sector well in the past. People emerging from this system have been able to carry out traditional roles and make enormous strides in the eradication and control of many major livestock diseases and related problems.
The charging role of veterinarians in public service plus external pressures call for some modification in the approach to veterinary education in order to help students cope with the knowledge explosion and with future changes likely to occur. Suggestions for curricular changes include provision of group and integrate subjects that logically relate to one another, greater emphasis on principles rather than rote learning and better selection of key information that must be committed to memory, as well as more emphasis on practical training and total systems rather than various components of those systems.
It is evident from the above that it is increasingly difficult to provide veterinary students with information in undergraduate courses to prepare them for any of the many roles they may need to play in public or private practice. The course would become too long and too cumbersome for effective development of the required skills in emerging graduates. A more flexible method may be to encourage a basic science course with some mandatory subjects, followed by a basic veterinary course dealing with principles and practical teaching in both pre-clinical and clinical subjects, livestock production and animal behaviour, as well as modules for specialization in various areas, which may come directly after a basic course or be taken up at a later date.
Veterinary education for field research
The aims of field research are to curb animal disease and increase animal production, to enhance farmer income and to improve public health. All of these aims are of national importance. To meet these objectives the research worker can select from an array of methods as listed in Box 5.
BOX 5 - Veterinary curriculum for field research
Surveys. In advanced countries a mass of data has been accumulated on indigenous diseases of livestock and is being expanded to include aquatic species, wildlife and other animals for which most countries still do not have reliable data banks. As a result, there is a need to teach simple survey techniques and data analysis.
Epidemiological studies. Designed to give detailed information on the prevalence, incidence, distribution anti variability of specific diseases, in other words, disease dynamics.
Trials. Assessment of vaccines or treatments and other intervention studies to show the value of a procedure in controlling disease, cost/benefit analysis can be built into the experiment.
Productivity studies. These must be concerned with the total farming system. Assessment of production indexes is an important part of the work of veterinarians, whether animals are healthy or; diseased. Body-weight gain in young animals, milk or egg production and fertility are all important aspects of the production system. Underlying disease factors such as parasitism, bacterial or other diseases may be assessed as part of multidisciplinary studies. |
Aspects of field research can be taught at any time in the undergraduate veterinary curriculum and will be most effective during the paraclinical and clinical years. The requirements for effective field research are usually more complex than they seem, however. To begin with, they will almost certainly be multidisciplinary, requiring the involvement of the people and facilities shown in Box 6.
The aims and methods of research can be implicit throughout the entire veterinary undergraduate course but these may not be encouraged by conventional curricula and teaching methods. They are most likely to be expressed when the teacher is an active research worker, a condition that lies at the core of an effective university. There is no reason why aspects of field research cannot be conveyed to the student from the earliest days of a veterinary programme through appropriate examples.
The interested and experienced teacher will be able to meet the challenge by reorganizing existing material and by using modern teaching aids, good printed materials, videos, etc. The analysis of case-studies, scientific papers or research results can convey both basic principles and provide insight into research methods at field level. Problem-solving exercises may include field examples. Many lecturers already do include these but there is undoubtedly a need to extend the practice more widely.
In some veterinary schools a small research project is part of the clinical course, but its effectiveness in field research depends on the type and amount of material to which the student has access. Often the accessibility of good quality field material is limited for geographical, economic or logistical reasons in urban faculties. It is important that the student is trained to select problems of great economic importance, some of which are subclinical. The temptation to concentrate on the more exotic, exciting and newsworthy diseases should be tempered by the realization that more mundane problems (mastitis, internal parasitism, protein deficiency, neonatal mortality, infertility) may have a greater effect on productivity and farmer income.
In training students in the paraclinical sciences, the role of the laboratory in field research should be emphasized. If the field workers cannot depend on this support, their success in research will be limited. The scope for field research based on the paraclinical sciences is almost unlimited; the skilful selection of problem areas and appropriate support from a laboratory, abattoir or other facility can generate considerable information that may be valuable far beyond the experiment site.
"Field" research is a broad concept, encompassing work at the level of the small farm, commercial production unit, abattoir or diagnostic laboratory and even at the national surveillance level. It can involve any one of a wide range of economic animals, ruminants, monogastrics and avian species, as well as fish, crustaceans and molluscs. All have many well-defined problems that are sometimes influenced by regional (for example, tropical) characteristics. Veterinary schools in different regions are increasingly proving their skills by offering specialized training portfolios in these areas.
Short courses are the usual means of technology transfer. These may last one day, one week, one month or longer depending on the aims of the programme. They have the advantage of minimally disrupting the organizations concerned. Great skill is apparent in the design of an effective course, which maybe presented by senior members of the organization concerned or by external consultants drawn from the commercial sector, national or international agencies. It is essential that the curriculum is relevant, understandable and pitched at a level that will yield results of practical value to the farmer. The rush to high technology should be resisted when more appropriate intermediate technology is what is needed. Production should come before status, the farming system before the scientist.
BOX 6 - People and facilities to be involved in veterinary field research
Veterinary field officers and animal health assistants who are expected to carry out disease investigations and control. to transfer information to farmers and to oversee quarantine and surveillance, among other things. Where field research is planned, however, it is imperative that the veterinarian/farmer link is direct when the work is being carried out since the veterinarian has the scientific background to assess the causes and significance of disease.
General practitioners may be included in the research team and assigned specific tasks such as project supervision, clinical data and materials (blood, urine) collection or pregnancy diagnosis.
Livestock producers are the first link in the research chain. Training for field research must therefore include an outline of extension methods for gathering information. The farmer should become involved at an early stage of project planning.
Regional laboratories to provide accurate diagnosis essential for field research on disease. In addition, communications must be good and rapid between the laboratory and the field. and personnel should understand each other's roses. As a result. training is required at both ends of the axis.
Abattoirs and meat-processing plants can be valuable components of field research as surveys earned out using blood? urine or organs may provide indicators of the prevalence of disease in a district, region or country. Data may be used for simple quantitative analyses or from the basis of trace-back studies at the farm or district level for more detailed investigation. |
The aim of field research is to obtain applicable information that will enhance production and farmer income. Transfer of the information and methods is the final stage of the process. Communication skills should be discussed as part of the field research process, therefore, since the trainees may be expected to become agents of extension. Some insight into sociological and economic structures and effective communication methods and audiovisual techniques are desirable if an operation is to succeed.
National agricultural research systems in Sub-Saharan Africa
In developing countries, national agricultural research systems (NARS) vary markedly as to sophistication and effectiveness. Many NARS, particularly in Asia and Latin America, are mature institutions, staffed by well-trained research workers, and their programmes are directed at solving important country development problems. In sub-Saharan Africa, on the other hand, NARS are young, still developing institutions and too often research is poorly focused on national needs. In many of these institutions too many research workers are foreigners (29 percent in NARS in sub-Saharan Africa in 1981-1985) and there is too high a turnover rate of professional staff. Support for NARS throughout the developing world is only 25 percent of the support of NARS in the developed world based on agricultural gross domestic product, even though many of the research problems in developing countries are much more complex than those in developed countries. Another problem for many NARS is that donors fund special projects for short periods of time and require country participation in funding. This introduces donor bias and distorts national research objectives. Donor support, however, is critical to the survival of many NARS; consequently, research administrators are forced to accept donor funding for their institutions to survive.
One of the most serious problems facing NARS and individual scientists in many developing countries is professional isolation. The lack of adequate library resources, especially current scientific journals, isolates scientists from the international mainstream of science. Since few NARS can establish critical masses of scientists in many areas of study, many scientists must work alone or in very small groups. Funds for travel to national and international meetings, to visit other laboratories or for study abroad are very scarce. All this leads to a pervasive professional isolation, which is destructive to research productivity.
Local farmers in the Byumba prefecture in northern Rwanda learning techniques of spraying cattle against ticks
Using computers to monitor the progress of the New World Screwworm eradication campaign in Libya.
Another serious problem in sub-Saharan Africa is the small number of research scientists with Ph.D.-level training. In all the 49 countries of this region, there are only 1 000 research workers in animal production and health with B.Sc.-level training or higher; of these 315 also have a M. Sc., and an estimated 100 of these have earned a Ph.D. There are too few African scientists with adequate research training to lead research on intensification and all of its ramifications, and this is an essential transformation if agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa is to provide food and subsistence for the region's rapidly growing population. There is a critical need to expand postgraduate education for research in the developing world and particularly in sub-Saharan Africa.
Conclusions and recommendations
The quality and effectiveness of research, education and extension programmes, more than any other aspect of the development process, will determine how well developing countries will feed and support their growing populations in the uncertain years ahead. Rural-sector development requires the constant improvement of human resources at all levels of production, processing, marketing and support services, as well as the development or adaptation of new knowledge about these processes through research. Therefore, national strategies for development require that educational programmes (primary, secondary and tertiary) be constantly evaluated and adjustments made as development progresses. Development also requires that new knowledge be created or adapted to support all aspects of agricultural development. Lasting progress in the improvement of animal production and health in any country cannot be realized without the underpinnings provided by research on local problems that constrain development.
Doctoral training and university research are especially problematic because they are the most underfunded of all major university activities in developing countries. Paradoxically, these are being neglected at the very time that increasing numbers of trained scientists are needed to propel agricultural development in most developing countries. The fundamental reason for this neglect is that postgraduate education and university research are not perceived by policy-makers in most countries to be relevant to development needs. Consequently, veterinary faculties often do not function as part of the national agricultural research system and therefore constitute an underused, potentially important source of highly skilled research workers. Faculties of veterinary science in developing countries will have to orient their research and postgraduate efforts toward solving high-priority development problems in their countries if they expect to receive a just share of scarce national resources allocated to education and research.
There was a time when postgraduate education of veterinarians in developing countries could best be achieved by sending students abroad for their research training. Today, the number of students requiring education, the cost of sending them to developed countries for long periods of time, the number that do not return after completion of their training and the growing irrelevance of many training programmes in developed countries to-agricultural production problems of developing countries make the establishment of high-quality postgraduate education programmes in developing countries mandatory.
Most developing countries have established graduate programmed in subjects relevant to animal production and health in institutions within the country. Although some of these are of high quality, too many suffer from an acute shortage of funding, lack of a critical mass of mentors, the absence of a dynamic research programme and the lack of an adequate research environment to sustain high-quality postgraduate programmes,
It would be an impossible task to strengthen postgraduate programmes in all countries to the point where they are able to produce modern, productive scientists capable of solving the complex and difficult agricultural production problems of the developing world. In regions such as sub-Saharan Africa a much more workable approach would be to establish subregional postgraduate centres staffed and funded to provide postgraduate education for citizens of countries that share common problems in a discipline or related area. Other institutions within the area could focus on other postgraduate topics to serve the needs of the subregion. Several veterinary colleges working together could develop high-quality postgraduate programmes in a number of disciplines; it would not be possible for any one college to do this alone.
In conclusion, there is a growing need in developing countries for veterinary scientists trained to conduct research to fill important posts in national agricultural research centres and for research and development tasks in private enterprises. Most of these scientists should be educated either within their own country or in another country in the region. Many developing countries have established postgraduate programmes in some of the disciplines relevant to animal production and health. There is a strong need to develop regional cooperative efforts so that veterinary colleges sharing common problems can collaborate and develop joint programmes to educate veterinarians for research tasks.