Hello my fellow Herbies,

When Linda asked me about my project on another thread it occured to me that maybe the Herb Soc Herbies could help. My working title is -

Do the benefits outweigh the risks from the pyrrolizidine alkaloid content of Borago officinalis?

One half will concentrate on the PAs and associated safety data and I have a fairly clear idea where I'm going with that. The other half will try to determine whether Borage has a unique place in the materia medica. To do that I'll have to search the herbal literature and I thought I'd start with the oft quoted "I, borage, always bring courage". However, although many herbals quote it, none seem to give a source. If anyone has any advice on where to start looking or indeed any other evidence for Borage as an adrenal tonic or, in fact, advice on any aspect of the project I would be very very grateful.

tia
Claire

You were right Claire.
Theres lots on toxicity just by Googling. this is probably the best and most recent... http://cot.food.gov.uk/pdfs/tox200804

On the medical history there is a piece in Sarah Garland's "The Herb and Spice Book" published by Frances Lincoln 1979.
referring to the Greek tradition of the 'humours' and that... "The herbs prescibed had to counter the predominant humour, so that borage and marjoram, for instance, would be prescibed to cheer, invigorate, warm and thus reduce a cold, melancholy humour caused by an excess of black bile."

More useful may be this piece from "A Guide in Colour to KITCHEN HERBS AND SPICES" by Bohumir Hlava and Dagmar Lanska. UK edition 1980 Octopus Books.

After the description of its form and habit, and uses in cooking it continues...

"Borage is also a medicinal plant, containing mainly mucilages (up to 30 per cent), resins, saponins, asparagin, silicic acid, tannins, antocyanic pigment and essential oils.
Fresh Borage also contains vitamins; of its mineral content, manganese is the most important.
Borage has diuretic and slightly laxative properties, and has anti-inflammatory effects. It is said to strengthen the nervous system. An English saying, derived from Pliny, maintains that 'Borage gives courage'. Freshly pressed juice of the plant is believed to reduce spring fatigue, by accelerating the metabolism and thus acting as a general pick-me-up."

So there is a lead for you. Pliny. How's your Latin?

Lesley Bremness seems to agree. In her "The Complete Book of Herbs" Dorling Kindersley/National Trust 1988 she writes,

"The common thread running through historical descriptions of borage is its ability to make men and women glad and merry, to comfort the heart, dispel melancholy and give courage. The Celtic name 'borrach' meant courage and the Welsh name 'Llawenlys' translates as herb of gladness. According to Dioscorides and Pliny, borage was the famed 'nepenthe' of Homer, a herb wine that brought absolute forgetfulness."

There you go...How's your Greek?


Good Luck

John

Hi Claire,

I missed your other thread sorry, what is your project for?

I've been using borage tincture (fresh plant, mostly flowering tops) periodically in the last year for adrenal healing. It is quite remarkable. I started with a dose of several droppers but now use 3 or 5 drops as a dose (mostly because of the PA issue).

Have you seen the information on Herbwifery forum?

David Hoffman refers to research on borage and adrenal restoration in his early edition of The Holistic Herbal, which I think was published in the early 80s. I've never been able to find what that research was but would be very interested if you find out!

The quote about borage and courage is usually attributed to Pliny I think, but I don't know if that's been formally accepted.

best wishes,
kate.

Hi Claire

Richard Mabey does mention Pliny and the borage connection in a book he was consultant editor of "The New Age Herbalist", also available as "The Complete New Herbal",  The "Ego Borago gaudia semper ago", "I, borage..." quote as John and Kate have said, is often attributed to Pliny (Gaius Plinius Secondus) more commonly referred to in texts as Pliny the elder, although Dioscorides often gets mentioned in the same sentence, and so far I've read or heard anyone catergorically state who said it originally. In the new age herbalist Mabey says that "Pliny repeats an ancient verse", so whoever said it first came before Pliny, maybe Anthony Lyman-Dixon will have an idea?

Richard Le Strange in his "A History Of Herbal Plants" says that both Dioscorides and Pliny thought highly of borage and goes on to say that Pliny observed that the use of borage 'maketh a man merry and joyful'.

Which is what John Gerard said in his herbal - “It maketh a man merrie and joyfull.  Use the floures in sallads to exhilarate and make the minde glad.  Use everywhere for the comfort of the heart, for driving away sorrow and increasing the joy of the minde.  The leaves and floures of Borage put into wine make men and women glad and merrie and drive away all sadness, dulnesse and melancholie.  Syrup made of the floures of Borage comforteth the heart, purgeth melancholie and quieteth the phrenticke and lunaticke person.” 

I knew of the courage connection but not that it was recommended for lunatics, I can think of a few people today who would benefit from a cup of borage tea, Gordon Brown being one of them lol!

Le Strange says that borage wasn't mentioned in England until 1265 and by 1440 it was a common plant in England. Richard Mabey says that John Evelyn wrote that borage was "of known virtue to revive the hypochondriac and cheer the student".  If I come across anything else I'll post it here. Good luck with your project and do keep us updated on what you discover and your progress

Debs

Wow - you guys are amazing - Thank you!

So, start with Pliny - my Latin isn't bad but I don't know about my Greek. All fantastic leads.

Hi John, that link is excellent - lots of references for me to follow up. Thanks

Hi Kate, its a dissertation for my Honours degree. I love the herbwifery forum - will do a search for any borage info on there - good call. Thanks

Hi Debs - thanks you also for your quotes - perhaps a cup of borage would be an idea to cheere this student...

Claire

I've made borage tincture and vinegar and the smell and taste is uplifting and fresh before you even start to use it!

When I was looking at supporting my over-taxed adrenals, I was taking a combination of borage and vervain. My herbalist friend looked at me aghast and asked why I was using both when one would do. She said that borage was particularly good for grounding people. Those individuals who fly the adrenal kite all the time and spend most of their time on the ceiling (my description, not hers)found borage particularly helpful. There may be a connection between being grounded and therefore able to face what must be faced which could well be translated as courage.

Just a thought

Sarah

Quoting Claire [ "Hi Debs - thanks you also for your quotes - perhaps a cup of borage would be an idea to cheere this student..." ]

I'd recommend adding a little Pimm's to your borage cup <g> that certainly makes me cheery, there was me thinking it was the Pimm's having that effect, but it must be the borage When I get tiddly from now on I can blame the borage lol!

Debs

Well Claire, you have chosen a very interesting topic for your project.
The use of Borage to promote courage can be traced back virtually as far as records have been kept. The Romans used to give it to their gladiators prior to them going into battle and in medieval times,knights would have the flower embroidered on to their clothes,all in the belief that it would help them to win.

Whilst borage has a number of medicinal uses, I use it most for adrenal support. Especially for treating the menopause when the adrenals have the extra role of helping in the production of oestrogen. It is also of great value when people have been prescribed steroids.

I use it rather a lot and it figures in my top 10 of favourite herbs. I always tell my patients what herbs I am giving them and when it is borage, explain the historical background regarding bravery and courage and for many of them it gives them an enhanced confidence in the prescription. If that makes people think of the word "placebo", which seems to have become a dirty word, all I can say is that I`d like to be so good that I could cure by placebo alone !!! lol--as my teenage son would say !

There is a very good article by Penelope Ody on borage in a previous edition of Herbs--vol 31.2 2006

Do let us know how you get on.
Linda

Yes, its the adrenal aspect I'm particularly interested in as I think this may be what can give it a unique place in the materia medica. (Although, some of my reading so far has given me pause for thought with regard to the seed oil...) Of the herbals I have, only Hoffman and Ody give adrenal tonic as an action - I'm curious about where that came from, especially the part about steroid therapy. Sarah, I'm loving that image of "flying the adrenal kite"

Claire
off to find some Pimms

The message below was posted on another list I visit. I don't know if her knowledge is any more than yours, but thought you might decide to question further.
I have been using borage with good effect for an awfully long time. The only side effect I came across was not conclusive. A patient who has been on long time high dose steroids for IBS was trying to come off the steroids. She would get down to 5ml od and all symptoms would return. A mixture includong borage (steroid withdrawl - adrenal support) was helping, but a liver function test showed enzym changes. I corresponded with the specialist who was prepared to blame the borage. However, long term steroids are also liver toxic so no one cause could be identified. It may have been the combination of steroid and borage.
I have never has an adverse reaction other than this.
I checked Mills and Bone and the European Compendium and they don't even list borage.
I will still use it with confidence, for adrenal insufficiency and exhaustion. usually 20ml tincture in 100ml, 30drops tds.
Of course PA,s are only extracted efficiently in alcohol. Using teas extracts very little, in fact an insignificant amount.

Here's the other message:

Another thing about pyrrolizidine alkaloids is that the effect is
cumulative. So, you may be able to go some time ingesting them without
apparent ill effect, until whammo! Veno-occlusive disease. And that is
irreversible damage.

However, if I had a broken bone, I would drink comfrey leaf tea for the 6
weeks while I healed.

Comfrey applied topically isn't a worry. It's ingestion that may be a
concern.

Betty
www.GreenSpiralHerbs.com
www.GreenSpiralHerbs.blogspot.com
www.BettyPillsbury.com
Best wishes - Jenny

Hi Debs, Claire and everyone,
Debs,since you mention me, here are some brief comments about the Romans, courage and borage. I hope I am not going to tread on anyone’s toes when I say that the first thing I do when anyone mentions a classical connotation is to look it up in Fernie and then try and work out where on earth he got that particular idea from. Invariably he drags in poor old Pliny, who I always feel would be most surprised to read all the stuff with which he has been credited. The Octopus book mentioned by John is the only publication I have ever encountered that rivals Fernie in the outlandishness of its assertions so do cross-check Claire if you intend using it as a reference.
What Pliny actually said in 25 : 81 was “Iungitur huic buglossos boum linguae similis cui praecipuum quod in vinum delecta animi voluptates auget, et vocatur euphrosynum” and our very own William Turner, which I haven’t had time to read, goes in to great detail about the question of when does Bugloss become Borage.This is just as well as Tractatus (Egerton 747) and Rufinus distinguish between them as being two different plants..
So OK, Bugloss/Borage in a glass of wine makes you happy. However it was also Fernie who originally (?) came up with “Borago ego gaudia semper ego” which sounds more like the motto of an American redbrick university than a genuine Latin adage, particularly as the word “Borage” doesn’t appear in Macer or in any Classical text, which supports Deb's Le Strange comment. I am willing to bet my overdraft that permutations of “Borage” “Borago” etc appear nowhere in classical Latin. Tom Stobart, a writer for whom I normally have a lot of respect says the Romans “introduced” Borage to England, but fails to give any citation, - I expect it came on the same overcrowded freighter as Lavender along with all the other unauthenticated plant introductions attributed to the Romans.

I will ask Richard Mabey about the earlier rhyme next time I am in touch with him. He knows infinitely more about such things than I do and I can only suggest as a source either a lost text of Pliny’s old mentor, Antonius Castor or a translation of Creutas or Theophrastus, after all there was virtually nothing about herbs in Latin before Pliny. As for borage being “The nepenthe of Homer” , I think Fernie wrote this after a particularly hefty dose of “Euphrasion-in-wine. Again,what Pliny wrote was “nobile illud nepenthes oblivionem tristitiae veniamque adferens…..” and this is in 25:12 ie almost sixty chapters before getting on to the subject of “Buglossos”. I can see why Fernie put two and two together to make five though, Homer in Odyssey 4 : 219 uses words almost identical to Pliny to describe the Pharmakon given to Helen to cheer her up. But this was no soft drug given to jolly along a slightly depressed adolescent after a tiff with her boyfriend, these were high powered knockout drops to help a woman obliterate the awareness that it was her stupidity (feminists please don’t write in that she was the unwitting “plaything of the Gods”, I am aware of that argument too) which had condemned two states to more than a decade of savage warfare, the destruction of Troy, the setting of the Gods against one another, the sacrifices of various virgins, a vendetta within the House of Atreus, - one can go on and on, so it has to be something infinitely more potent, current theories suggest a hallucinogenic species of Zizyphus though Opium has also been suggested. The only points of similarity between Borage and “Nepenthes” in Homer is that like many classical herbs, they were both taken in wine and dulled the memory, which could of course have been the effect of the wine itself.

I wonder whether the above accounts for the idea of floating borage in drinks, it is certainly an interesting theme to pursue and one that constantly recurs in medieval texts. One American website, clearly having overdosed on Hollywood, actually claims that crusaders put it “into stirrup cups prior to their departure (sic)” No wonder so many got lost on their way to the Holy Land!. "Cor...." appearing in several texts relating to this plant, I tried “to do a Fernie” and correlate “Courage” “Correggio” (modern Italian, not Latin) and “cor” (Latin) but failed to convince even myself of the validity of this line of thought, so as a source of Dutch courage for crusaders or anyone else, Borage may be a non-starter. Definitely "Cor..." in the precise context is associated with "cardiac" rather than "Courage" though one is reminded of the English exhortation to "take heart" presumably derived from a common stem.

I don’t go along with Fernie’s suggestion that “Borage” is derived from a Celtic origin, since it is called “Borachus” in Platearius and various other Italian texts.
As for curing the melancholic, there seems to be a general agreement on this throughout history, in fact the unanimity attached to this herb’s properties is unusual, it is also good for the heart, absent mindedness and for epilepsy I have various medieval quotes, but the forum’s web site can’t cope with Middle-English texts and anyway you have probably seen enough of me by now. However, I will be glad to send them to any interested persons who can handle HTML messages. Of course I haven’t dealt with here the question of what was “melancholy?” (any malaise caused by an excess of Black Bile) or what was “Bugloss?” – Echium, Borago off or Borago laxiflora, Anchusa, symphytum, or even Picris, notwithstanding Matteus Silvaticus’ quote “Borrago contro la malinconia, - a tutti nota”

I haven’t looked at anything post-medieval but re Deb’s remarks about Borage tea, I did glance at Van Wyk and attach his comment that although Borage seed oil contains 21% gamma linolenic acid (GLA) as opposed to the 9% found in Oenothera biennis, it also contains traces of several pyrrolizidine alkaloids. These alkylate DNA and are hepatoxic and carcinogenic. As these are largely found in the flowers and leaves, Borage tea should be used sparingly and with caution. Similar caution should apply when using Borage oil for treating epileptics and schizophrenics. For the same reason, he warns against taking the related comfrey internally and applying the leaves to broken skin.

PAs do extract into water, or at least the point is made that even small amounts can do damage to certain people so teas can't be considered inherently safe (although they no doubt are for most people).

Also, PA damage (VOD) afaik doesn't show up on liver enzyme tests, which is why it's so hard to know if there is damage going on before it's too late. I think biopsy is the only way to establish that damage has been done.

It's been a while since I read up on it, but there is alot of info about PAs on Henriette's, and Jim MacDonald's websites.


Antony, what would be the bugloss referrred to in your quotes?

I'd be interested to know if anyone has been using Viper's Bugloss (Echium vulgare) for mood healing. Unlike borage, it's naturalised in New Zealand, so I'm keen to learn more about it. My initial research (Maude Grieve) suggested a use as a mood herb, which might suggest an action on the adrenals like borage. The flowers certainly have an uplifting energy when eaten.

Anthony that's great and I agree with you that much of what is in the Octopus book does not stand up to scrutiny but does illustrate how much of herbalism is a work of art and not science. I think herbalism is all the better for not being eaten up entirely by science...discuss.

With regard to nepenthe, I have only found references to opiates and/or other herbs, and no further references to Borage.

I hope this is a help to Claire?

John

P.S. Viper's Bugloss grows like a weed around here on the South Downs in Sussex.
I went onto some ancient Downland on Wednesday and some was still in flower on a North facing slope. It is a beautiful plant.

Hello Claire,

I love borage and use it often with people in times of stress and fear quoting ' borage for courage '- I believe that these emotions are intensely heating for the body and can indeed result in 'burn-out' and I see Borage as a cooling moist plant that is very gentle, I use it in combination with dandelion alot to help ground and protect. And mostly I work with drop doseages so sometimes as little as 3 drops in times of need.

With respect to liver toxicity - I alway give strict dietry advice of detoxing whilst on a herbal course for specific aliment so no caffine, alcohol, sugar, tabac etc and if i were worried about the PA's I suppose milk thistle could be given as a protective.

Interestingly borage is a herb of Jupiter, this planet is also conexted to the liver in medical astrology.

good luck with you research
K x

Well Claire, You have certainly provoked a lot of thought on the subject of Borago! I've personally found this whole discussion to be very enlightening.For me it has highlighted how easy it is to accept a commonly repeated "fact " without necessarily knowing where that knowledge originated from. Anthony's excellent research raises many interesting questions.It would be fascinating Anthony, to read the medieval quotes and is info that I think we should have in the HS library. Debs, you know my computer skills (or lack of),so could you please do the necessary magic to get this info from Anthony. Thank you.

As a medical herbalist I want to know the scientific principles of a herbs actions but more importantly I look to empirical knowledge as well. Scientists have proven that it is impossible for a bumble bee to fly but I choose to believe the evidence of my own eyes on that one.

We know animals have an ability to seek out plants that will heal them when they are ill,and I think that man also has this knowledge constructed into our DNA , trouble is,nowadays,we don't always listen to that still quiet voice. Sarah has mentioned in a number of previous postings that it is quite common for a plant to grow prolifically near to someone when they have need of it.

Courage, bravery,adrenal support, call it what you will, has always been the vital ingredient that has assured the survival of the human race and therefore anything that helps that, will be recorded by man and I think that it is a fascinating topic to investigate,as Anthony has shown us.

Linda

Claire,
you indeed have unearthed a mine of information on borage there. It is one of my favorites in practice too. You might find this extract of "an earthwise herbal" by Matthew Wood useful. http://www.woodherbs.com/Borage.html
All the best,
Milena

I love Borage, I use it rarely, but it has never yet let me down.

When a patient has had good adaptogenic and nervine herbs in their mix, but still can't "feel the sun shining on them" because they seem to be afraid of something (or someone, I put in a little borago and "bingo". I can't think of another herb I could use in that situation. (I've tried Verbena off, but it's not the same) It doesn't take much or long.

Sorry Kate, perhaps I should have said 'very little of the alkaloid is extracted in water'. Even so I am very confident in giving borage in tincture form in the right dose for the patient for the right length of time.
I, for one, would be very sorry to see it restricted. We have already lost several very useful herbs and my patients are the losers.

Hi Claire and Herbalists
I finished a dissertation this year on the entire [medicinally utilised] borage family and how they are used in different systems of medicine. I used a qualitative research methodology called inductive thematic analysis to look for common themes in how Boraginaceae species are used as medicines. I found twelve major themes including Vulnerary, Respiratory Medicines etc. One theme was Up/Down or Uplifting vs Dragging Down or High/Low. There is a strong vertical axis of symptoms in these plant medicines - the 'uplifting' effect for 'down / low' states is not covered by Borago alone but appears to be common to many Forget-me-not family species.
Sarah, I was therefore facinated to read your applications for Borago:
"good for grounding people" [they are HIGH - brings them DOWN LOW].
"Those individuals who fly the adrenal kite [HIGH/UP, high flyers?] all the time and spend most of their time on the ceiling [HIGH]

By looking at the whole family, I found that many of the sometime outlandish-sounding claims made for one species are made for a related species by different peoples in different places at different times - for example, Myosotis (Forget-me-not) is related in tales to memory/remembrance in Europe, but Myosotis afropalustris is used by Zulu and Sotho medicine men in Southern Africa to help them to retain the knowledge of their craft and Lithospermum species are/were used by various native North American tribes to assist memory. Interesting in relation to Borago's supposed ability re Nepenthe to create absolute forgetfulness!

Kate, Re Bugloss [Echium] use for mood disorders, there were 2 small controlled trials done on Echium amoenum in Iran (local species), which showed positive effects in treating patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder and mild-to-moderate major depressive disorder. I am sure other Echium species could be used with care, although I do have the feeling that there is more toxicity in this genus than in some of the other genera.

Re toxicity and PA's. Well, after looking at a lot of material, I simply couldn't say. There is major variation depending on timing, conditions and different species. What was intersting to me, however, is that many Boraginaceae species have a history of use in treating liver and gallbladder problems. One Heliotropium sp [genus rich in PA's] is even used as a hepatoprotective in the Canaray Islands! I suspect that many Boraginaceae species have an irritant / stimulating effect on the liver and are therefore suitable for cholestasis and other stagnant liver states. It is important to remember that these species are also extremely rich in damage-limiting antioxidant compounds, such as Rosmarinic acid. With regards to solubility of PA's - I noted that many species from this family are prepared in an oily medium - fat, lard, oil, coconut milk etc and wondered if this might be an avenue of administration that should be investigated further? Does anyone know about the solubility of the PA's found in the Boraginaceae in oils/fats?

Claire, i did find the that there was fairly scanty evidence for the borage - adrenal link and came to the conclusion that most herbalists accepted this as a truism without much historical or modern evidence to back it up. However, the whole family has an incredibly strong endocrine affinity and well documented effects on the pituitary, thyroid and gonads. This family is sorely neglected when treating patients with hormonal disturbances. I would say that, along with the Lamiaceae, the Boraginaceae should be top of our list in hyperthyroid patients, and should be looked to in pituitary dysfunction especially where this affects female hormones.

Well, i think i should stop there - could go on forever! There is a summary of the themes and a typical Boraginaceae patient on my website http://tutorials.similarsolutions.com/blog/Articles
Would be good to get feedback

Thank you all so much for taking the time to reply. I did think about doing a practitioner survey but, given the time constraints, I decided against it. I was worried that I would be sitting 2 weeks before deadline still waiting for questionnaires to come back. However, the question has obviously struck a chord so its something I might come back to - perhaps as a CPD project. Borage is a herb I have always loved and I too would hate to see it lost from the materia medica. That is why I am trying to establish a risk/benefit analysis in order to be able to approach the safety debate confidently. I do hope the balance falls in its favour.

Anthony, thank you for your very detailed reply. It has highlighted that, for me, historical research is not a strength. Your pointers wil be a great help I think. It has also highlighted the fact that my Latin is rusty to the point of disintegration! I did get "ox tongue" (I think?) from the first quotation which reminded me of the entry in Culpeper under Borage of "langue de boeuf". I have been through the introduction to the British Librarys facsimile of Tractatus (Egerton 747) and identified four key texts, starting with Dioscorides. However, I haven't quite decided on a final strategy for approaching the second part of the project. Better get my skates on, the proposal is due next Monday...

Thank you all for your replies. It is certainly interesting to hear of real personal experience with the beautiful Borage.

Claire

Hi Craig,

I think we cross posted there...

Did you study at the Scottish School? One of my tutors mentioned to me that there had been some recent research on Borage done there that I may find interesting.

Thank you for the info - very interesting. I'll have a look at your link

Claire

Hi everyone,
Thank you for your kind comments about my “research”, However, I don’t really deserve them, because Matthioli should have been my first resort not my last. I confess that the language and the weird sixteenth century italic font printed on something similar to yellow blotting paper makes my eyes go squiffy and I try and avoid it where possible, otherwise, I would have realised earlier that my first instincts about the “cor/courage” connection were more or less on the right track. Matthioli confirms that there is a link between Borage and “Courage” in that the original name of the plant “Coraggine “ became corrupted over the years in to “Boraggine”, but the supposed properties remained the same. This seems an unlikely story, but Stannard in particular has written about the importance of properties assumed from a plant’s name rather from its botanical features (“Medieval Reception of Classical Plant Names” Paris 1968) so Matthioli may well be right.
Kate, when you ask what kind of Echium or Bugloss? The answer is that I haven’t a clue, but Stannard, in the paper mentioned above, is fairly certain that the plant "Hecios" referred to in Ps-Dioscorides is Echium italicum. On the other hand John Riddle suggests that this plant, also referred to in “Ex Herbis” as “Ficios”, “Hecios” and “alcidiabios” is Echium vulgare but says that Cockayne gives the old English version of this name, "Echium rubrum” which Brodin, in “Agnus Castus” suggests is not a reference to the colour of the plant but to the condition “Cholera rubea” caused by an excess of yellow bile. All of which brings me on to Claire’s point about the introduction to the BL Egerton 747. In this book Raphael offers several Anchusas as synonyms for Borage/Bugloss which seems logical if Cockayne was wrong and that the “red” refers not to anything to do with bile, but to the dye extracted from the roots. Brodin expands on “Borage” at some length, but I will leave it to you enthusiasts to follow it up. Meanwhile Claire if you have managed get past the introduction and waded through Egerton 747, your patience and language skills are infinitely greater than mine and I am full of admiration. I admit that I cheat. The 1949 Thorndike edition of Rufinus has much the same material as “Tractatus” but in a nice easy to read modern font. The bad news is that much of it is in medieval Latin/Italian and therefore a large part of the vocabulary appears in neither Latin nor Italian dictionaries.
Craig raises a point which has long fascinated me as to how and why ethnic cultures who can have had no contact with one another, have evolved almost identical uses for herbs of the same genera. Bible scholars will explain this by quoting Enoch VI in which the naughty angels “ took unto themselves wives and each chose for himself one, and they began to go in unto them and to defile themselves with them, and they taught them charms and enchantments, and the cutting of roots, and made them acquainted with plants” and thus the use of herbs by all cultures has a common origin, though personally I have my doubts as to whether this really is the answer.

Barker 289 tentatively suggests the word “borage” as being derived from the Arabic “Abou (father) and “rash” (sweat) as it’s a diaphoretic whose first recorded use was at Aleppo, but “woolley haired” is more likely. Brodin quotes the NED in saying that the first reference to Borage is dated 1265 and the word is derived from the late Latin “Burra” a shaggy garment. Right, that’s Borage thrashed to death, I am off in search of a hefty dollop of Nepenthes