The History of Foot Torture
Cameron Kippen, Curtin University of Technology, Perth WA
In earlier times the desire to quell free thought and the need to elicit perceived truth were indistinguishable and achieved, in the main, through the medium of torture. Throughout history the black art of inflicting pain has been ever present but perhaps had its heyday in the Middle Ages. By the sixteenth century it was plain persuasion by means of pressing usually ended in death. Whilst this solved one problem by removing the deviant, it was less satisfactory in court cases where confessions and names of accomplices were required. Feet provided a most acceptable alternative i. e. being easy to inflict excruciating pain with the added advantage of not causing death. Torture of the foot became well established in civilised societies and continues to exist to this day. The author attempts to describe, from available literature, the history of foot torture. The use of torture techniques to obtain information is now against civilised culture and a group called Amnesty International works to obliterate it throughout the world. To find out more please visit Amnesty International (USA)

Judicial Torture The Inquistion
Star Chamber Peine Forte et Dure
Chinese Torture Falanga & Bastinado
The Boot Caspicaws
Piquet Water Torture
Kittee Toe Cutting
Shooting the foot Oregon Boot
Algophilia Toe Nail Tearing
Bibliography Acknowledgement


GLOSSARY OF TERMS
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The History of Foot Torture

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Judicial Torture
According to Scott (1995) torture may be described as a form of cruelty or method of tormenting. The concept of torture is based on two fundamental things, human beings capacity to imagine as well as their susceptibility to pain. The skills of the tormentor required to be highly developed as the turn of a screw could have dire consequence. When sanctioned by the State, it was executed by duly accredited or appointed officials, through judicial authorities. Torture and punishment were the primitive law that provided a means for forcing the individuals to act contrary to their wishes whilst compelling them to accept dictatorial jurisdiction. Repression and prevention of all attempts to rebel against that authority or the tenets of its creed was the sole focus of this form of persecution. Torture provided the most powerful instrument available and was subsequently used by the the State to wage war against treason; and the Church, in preventing of heresy. Pain was often so extreme the victim was impelled to confess anything, which his interrogators might wish. The provisions of the Magna Carta represented torture as abhorrent to the principle of English freedom but the Anglo Saxons were a callous and cruel race and whilst torture was never recognised by the common law of England, it was practised with the full authority of the reigning monarchs for 400 years. Torture was used to extract confessions and to obtain evidence but the activities were disguised, euphemised or justified under the name of punishment or as a discipline. It may be the principle of public exhibitions involving torture and cruelty may have been an attempt to lessen the incidence of lust, murders and lynching. However judges and executioners of the Middle Ages were compelled to be continually invent new and more severe forms of torture. The brutal form of punishment practised in one decade became a commonplace method in the next. Recorded history indicates witches were persecuted from the time of Noah but it was not until the end of the fifteenth century when Pope Innocent VIII issued a bull, which specifically called the faithful to exterminate sorcerers and witches as enemies of the Christian religion. Many brave people tried to put and end to the painful persecution but it took till the nineteenth century to become outlawed. The English renounced judicial torture in 1640 and it was abolished in Scotland in 1708. Frederick the Great abolished torture in Prussia. (1740), the Duch in 1771. The Italians abolished torture in 1786, the French 1789. In Russia it came to an end 1801, Spain 1812, Germany 1831; and Japan in 1873. Torture continues to be used in many countries around the world, despite official denials.


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The Inquisition
In 1231 Pope Gregory IX instituted the papal inquisition for the apprehension and trial of heretics. Later the remit included witches, diviners, blasphemers, and other sacrilegious persons. The Pope's original intent for the Inquisition was a court of exception to inquire into and glean the beliefs of those differing from Catholic teaching, and to instruct them in the orthodox doctrine. It was hoped that heretics would see the falsity of their opinion and would return to the Roman Catholic Church. In the event of persistence then to protect the Catholic community from infestation on non believers suspects were handed to civil authorities for punishment. Unfortunately the tribunals were almost entirely free from any authority, including that of the Pope hence it was impossible to eradicate abuse. In 1478, Pope Sixtus IV (1471-84) issued a papal bull allowing a second variety of the Inquisition, known as the Spanish Inquisition. This was at the specific request of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, of Spain. The regents wanted to unite their countrymen and chose Catholicism. The function of the Spanish Inquisition was to root out non-believers thus purifying the people of Spain. The Inquisitions were administered by both civil and church authorities which gave the Inquisition ultimate power. Run by secular governments much of their activities concerned the legitimacy of "conversos". Most were Jews who had converted either under duress or out of social convenience, and were suspected of secretly practising the Jewish faith. Throughout the 15th & 16th centuries the Spanish Inquisition brought about "a reign of terror throughout Europe" which was responsible for the impoverishment, torture, exile, and death of countless people. In 1483 Tomas de Torquemada became the inquisitor-general for most of Spain. He was responsible for establishing the rules of inquisitorial procedure and creating branches of the Inquisition in various cities. He remained the leader of the Spanish Inquisition for fifteen years and was responsible for the execution of thousands of Spaniards. Accused heretics were identified by the general population and brought before the tribunal. The were given a chance to confess their heresy against the Catholic Church and were also encouraged to indict other heretics. If they admitted their wrongs and turned in other aggressors against the church they were either released or sentenced to a prison penalty. If they would not admit their heresy or indict others the accused were publicly introduced in a large ceremony before they were publicly killed or sentenced to a life in prison. One form of torment was called the Spanish Chair and described a heavy iron chair in which the victim was secured by straps around his neck, arms and upper legs. Integral with the end of the chair was a pair of iron socks, in which the bare feet of the heretic were secured. A glowing brazier was placed at the feet and to prevent the extremities from heating up too quickly, the skin surface of each foot was basted with lard or oil. French criminals suffered a similar torture especially in Brittany, where a pan containing the white-hot coals was moved slowly towards their feet until a confession had been extracted. In Italy King Ferdinand VII had a portable chair made of iron and accompanying pan underneath the seat. The Inquisition was eventually "abolished" in 1834 by King Bonaparte in 1834. Pope Paul III established the Roman Inquisition or Congregation of the Inquisition in 1542. Alarm had spread at the number of Protestants. In its first twelve years, the activities of the Roman Inquisition were relatively modest and were restricted almost exclusively to Italy. When Cardinal Carafa became Pope Paul IV in 1555, he immediately urged a vigorous pursuit of "suspects." One of the main areas of interest was subversive literature and first Index of Forbidden Books was compiled in 1559. Succeeding popes tempered the zeal of the Roman Inquisition, but it was this institution that later put Galileo on trial.


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Star Chamber

The Star Chamber was formed by Henry VII (1485-1509). The name Star Chamber came from the magnificent room in the palace of Westminster where, the chief justices, pontiffs and members of Privy Council met. Their remit was to pass sentence on those too powerful to be dealt with by an ordinary court or to decide on cases too complex to be understood by the uneducated juries of the day. Frequently the King would preside and pronounce judgment. The Star Chamber was entirely separate from the common law courts of the day. At first the intention was honourable but it soon deteriorated into a means for meeting out punishment. Under Chancellor Wolsey's leadership (1515-29), the Court of Star Chamber became a political weapon, bringing actions against opponents to the decrees and edicts of Henry VIII. Wolsey also encouraged petitioners to use the Court of the Star Chamber as a court of original jurisdiction, not as a last resort after the common law courts had failed. Depositions were taken from witnesses, but no jury was employed in the proceedings. Although its sentences included a wide variety of corporal punishments, including whipping, pillorying, and branding, those convicted were never sentenced to death. The court remained active through the reigns of James I and Charles I. The Star Chamber became a byword for unfair judicial proceedings but its supreme powers were not questioned until 1628 and it was finally abolished by the Long Parliament in 1641.


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Peine Forte et Dure
The term Peine Forte et Dure describes severe and hard punishment. Before and after judicial torture victims were strictly confined usually in a location which was in itself a passive form of torture. Authorities saw no need to pamper wrong doers and were determined to make their lives unbearable as possible to sap their resistance. The victims were often kept trussed up for weeks, usually naked and in extreme cold and damp conditions before confessions were secured. The registration of pain is caused by the release of chemicals such as bradykinnin , substance P and prostaglandins and can be divided into two types somatic and visceral. Somantic pain most often is in the muscles and skin. This is mild by comparison to visceral pain, which radiates from internal organs causing nausea and weakness. Detection of somatic pain is found by stimulation of the free nerve endings that lie near the surface of the skin. Once activated they transmit a signal to the brain, however not all sensation will be perceived as painful and the message maybe thwarted in several ways. Nerves, which transmit sensations of deep pressure, vibration, heat and cold, can override pain signals. Moods also affect the process, for example pain is sharper when the person is anxious. Once pain has been registered for 20-40 minutes the body will begin to produce opiate like chemicals to reduce pain sensations. The release of chemicals can cause anaesthetic europhoria and trance like qualities. Moderate anxiety increases the response to pain but paradoxically high levels of fear, including terror, decrease the response to pain. This may explain the why tormentors would use techniques to extremes.



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Chinese Torture
Throughout the ages the Chinese have acquired a reputation for torture. Historically it is more than likely the authorised use of torture in China for purposes of confession, or forms of punishment, and execution, were no more than most other civilised countries of the time. Seventeeth century author, Semedo (cited in Scott,1995) wrote of a foot torment called Kia Quen where three pieces of wood were connected by a rope. The foot of the victim was placed between the bamboo then systematically squeezed until the heel was compressed into the foot. This form of punishment was reserved for male culprits, whereas females would have their fingers crushed in a torture called Tean Zu. Bastinado or beating the sole of the foot was meted out to both genders as a punishment and often inflicted with sufficient vigour as to cause death to the victim. The origins of footbinding remain vague but most authorities believe it was part of Chinese custom since the 11th century. Some hold the opinion footbinding was in existence for a millennium before. The most popular belief, promulgated by early Christian missionaries, was the Empress Taki (11th century) was born with clubfeet, to avoid her humiliation, her father made an edict that all highborn women of China would have their feet bound. Another reason often cited by contemporary Chinese, who have grown up through the cultural revolution, was foot binding was a physical means of preventing married women from infidelity by physically restricting their movements. This would seem unlikely since there is no evidence to support restriction of the female gender in higher Chinese culture prior to modern times. It appears historic record would support the father of Empress Taki kept a troupe of erotic dancers with small feet. They used to dance on a floor of lotus leaves (a symbol of the vulva) for his sensual pleasure. This form of erotica became very popular but not all middle class men could afford the upkeep of a dance troupe. Foot binding of family members became established in the middle classes by way of paying respect to the Emperor. The habit plunged hundreds of millions of Chinese men, from highbrow mandarins to lowly peasants into ecstasies of sexual passion for nearly one thousand years. According to Rossi (1993) for genteel lovers the tiny foot provided endless amusement, with often the smell of the unwashed foot having charms for some, who referred to it as a fragrant bed aroma. Dr Chang Hui Shang considered that the alteration in walking due to the smaller foot caused changes in the female genitalia with sensitive folds developing in the labia. Further heightened sensuousness was experienced by the increased curvature of the sole of the foot, which was referred to as a second vagina. The big toe was proportionately large and tactile. A useful extension. Foot kissing and sucking was a common practice with the whole foot being placed in the mouth. Bound or lotus feet were considered the source of magical eroticism. Without doubt the practice of footbinding was as abhorrent to modern society as any ritualistic abuse. However when it was practised it was not as a punishment, albeit it was extremely painful, but instead as a coming of age, right of passage. To not have bound feet was a disgrace for a woman and social suicide. It is not always appreciated but some men had their feet bound. It is well reported within studies of anthropology that primitive tribes used painful rituals for entering adulthood. The ability to endure pain as a prerequisite for marriage was admired. The proof of pain may by itself have been the ultimate display that decoration was an unselfish act and that it was done to give pleasure to others (Bohannan P, cited in Love, 1997) Some tribes used the pain of scarifications to induce passion and thus fertility. Footbinding may have originally served a simialr purpose.



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Falanga & Bastinado

Flagellation is the oldest form of punishment and there are two forms of foot whipping i.e. falanga and bastinado. Although foot whipping was not always the same as torture, individuals did use it to this effect. At one time or another many types of whips rods and cudgels were used to beat the soles of the feet. Falanga (and bastinado) describe a form of foot torture where victims were bound with their feet raised and their soles beaten with sticks. In more recent times cables or metal implements might be used. It is thought falanga had its origins in Turkey but was also recorded in the Far East. Persians (now Iran) favoured bastinado, where the victim was gently and rhythmically beaten with a lightweight stick or bamboo on the soles of the feet. Continued bastinado resulted in uncontrollable hysteria and eventual mental collapse. In the Middle Ages, falanga was a punishment often used on traders who were dishonest. For some reason, bakers were particularly singled and this sent shock waves across Europe. In England, bakers attempted to avoid such official scrutiny by making a good will gesture to their customers and supplying a thirteenth role with every dozen purchased. This is the origins of the bakers dozen. A common misunderstanding was the thirteen, represented the twelve disciples plus Jesus. Falanga is still used today as torture, partly because the effects are difficult to identify medically. Blows are sometimes direct to bare feet or through shoes. In severe cases, casualties may be forced to walk on glass; or jump, on the spot carrying a heavy weight. The immediate effects are pains, with bleeding and tissue swelling but permanent damaged is dependent on posttraumatic oedema (or swelling). Torturers might limit this, as part of the ordeal, by cooling the feet or forcing the victim to put their shoes on after a beating. Smashing the heel and ball of the foot destroys the natural fatty-fibro padding, which assists shock absorption in normal walking. Depending on the severity of damage this would leave the victim unable to walk without pain. Skin wounds heal by second intention, leaving painful scars. Detachment of the skin at its deeper levels result in damage to proprioception adding considerably to pathological gait. Many victims report aponeuritis where the whole sole of the foot has become painful. Changes in pressure within muscle compartments necessitate a radical change in walking style. The feet are reported as hot and cold and there is an increase in the rate of perspiration. Stability and balance may also be adversely affected due to falanga. In many regions of the world falanga is still practised as a form of corporal punishment in bringing up children.


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The Boot

The Scots have never been backward when it comes to ingenuity and invention and were at the forefront of niche torture, inventing the boot (referred to as brodequins or bootkins). The cunning device ensured maximum agony without endangering life in anyway. There were several versions of the boot and all caused excruciating agony. The earlier boot consisted of a wooden frame around the lower leg and foot, similar to those that support young saplings. This was tightly bound in position with a strong rope. The victim was seated and had both legs incased, side by side. In a systematic way tension was increased to the tissues by driving wooden wedges into the framework causing compression of soft tissue, and crushing the legs and feet. Four wedges were used for ordinary torture and eight wedges in extraordinary torture. As the chords bit through the flesh it caused excruciating pain. In much case the bones were fractured. Later the wooden frame was replaced with an iron boot. Wedges were driven downward between the boot and flesh causing, pure agony. Sometimes the boot was heated until red hot during interrogation, a reference to this practice is found in Grimm's fairytales. Torture of the boot was considered by contemporary observers to be most severe and cruel and it was rare for anyone to survive the ordeal without permanent disfigurement. The alarm caused by the idea of the boot was often enough to loosen tongues but the event of the foot crushing was considered so upsetting to witnesses, many official observers would avoid the torture sessions. This created problems since there had to be independent witnesses present to confirm confession. Orders compelling the number of people required to stay were necessary. The Royals frequently visited the torture sessions and considered them as entertainment. The boot was used from sixteenth century onwards and equally applied to men and women. The boot was often reserved for suspected practitioners of the occult with many accused witches and warlocks were forced to endure foot torture. So successful was this torment several versions of the boot began to appear across Europe. In Spain, the Inquisition used the Spanish Boot which was an iron casing for the leg and foot and had a screw attachment for compressing the calf of the leg. Sometimes the leggings were heated whilst on the leg, alternatively they were pre heated then applied to the naked flesh. The advantage of the former method was questions could be asked before applying heat, otherwise damage was so immediate by the latter method, there was little advantage to the interrogator. This was done only as a last resort. The French version of the boot consisted of high boots made of spongy leather. These were placed on the legs of the victim who was sat in front of a burning fire. Boiling hot water was poured into the watertight boots penetrating the leather; and causing the flesh to coo. The subsequent shrinkage of the leather as it dried out tore mercilessly at the flesh. The Irish customised the boot and modified the French practice by pouring melted resin into the boots. Confessions were swift. The Austria Hungarian Empire used both crusher boots with wedges as well as the iron boot. Later variations on the basic boot theme included shin crushers from Germany and bone crushing tongs from Spain and the Lisbon Inquisition (1704) used the iron slipper. An alternative to the boot was called the foot press, and consisted of a pair of horizontal iron plates lined with spikes. Systematically each foot was squeezed between them. Another fiendish variant was the instep border, a boot like device with a six-inch retractable spike positioned over the instep. The victim was strapped to a chair and the crank was turned to drive the spike into the bootlike enclosure, piercing the instep and emeging through the sole of the foot.



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Caspicaws


Caspicaw or chasielawis means warm hose and described a form of torture where the victim wore crude stockings made from parchment. These were applied wet and the victims were placed next to a roaring hot fire. As the fabric shrunk the ensuing pain was agonising. Foot roasting described a particularly nasty torture when the victims legs were immobilized in stocks and the soles of the feet were smeared with fat and boiled over red-hot coals.



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Piquet


In the days of the British Empire, the British Army regiments were stationed in the outposts often living in tented camps. Judicial punishments were barbaric judged by today's standards but extremely effective in the field. One form of torment meted out to unruly privates was called piquet or picket. A long post was driven into the ground and the soldier left to stand on a stool beside it. His right hand was attached to a hook at the top of the post. A short length of timber was driven into the ground near the stool, with its upper end rounded to a blunt point. The soldier had to rest one heel on the stake when the stool was removed. Suspended from one wrist his body mass pressed against the spike through his bare heel. His position was changed every fifteen minutes. Although considered a military punishment but there was one case reported in Trinidad (1801) where a young women had to undergo a modified form of picket where her big toe was balanced on a sharp spike in the ground as she was suspended from the wrists.



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Water Torture


A bizarre torture practised in Medieval France called for the victim to be tied to a bench and their feet bathed in salt water. A goat was brought to the poor unfortunate prisoner and allowed to lick their feet. The rough tongue against the sensitive soles with the fear of being bitten, soon brought a confession. Trenchfoot (and Immersion foot) although not a torture per se were none the less a painful experience for soldiers and prisoners of war exposed to prolonged and extreme weather conditions. Without shoes and socks to protect their feet they were at the mercy of the elements. Trenchfoot was common in cold and wet conditions; immersion foot in hot and wet conditions. Overexposure resulted in a complete collapse of the foot's architecture, rendering the active soldier, immobile. Many serving troops supplied with inadequate footwear suffered trenchfoot in the trenches. Hence the name. In the Second World War, the European Campaign saw many thousands of active soldiers similarly inflicted. Immersion foot was recognised in the warm jungle theatre of war. Stealing boots from battlefield corpses was commonly reported and often the only means of preventing over exposure. Considerable number of soldiers were court marshalled for deliberately exposing their feet to the extreme elements in order to avoid fighting.



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Kittee


The Indians used an implement called the Kittee. It was made of wood and resembled a domestic lemon squeezer. Sensitive parts of the body including the feet were squeezed between two plates until the victim could bare it no more. When applied to the foot, the executioner would stand on the upper board or heap heavy stones leaving the victim for hours at a stretch. Torture by the kittee usually left the victim crippled.



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Toe Cutting


The term toe cutter is Australian slang for a person who lives by torturing other criminals, then robbing them. As the name implies the torture usually involves painful removal of the digits or in some cases the complete foot. Few victims ever inform since their loss has been acquired illegally. An infamous toe cutter was "Jimmie the Pom". His gang operated in the Sydney area during the seventies. They prayed on fellow criminals threatening bodily harm, till they disclosed the whereabouts of their ill begotten gains. Their modis operandi was to cut people's toes off, with bolt cutters. By day, the leader of the extorionists, ran a dress shop. He emigrated to Australia in 1967 and claimed to be a member of the notorious Kray Brothers Gang from East London where he picked up the idea. His technique seemed to work because over the years it is reputed the Toe Cutter Gang were able to amass considerable loot from their fiendish toe fetish. Less adept copycats used blowtorches applied to the soles of the feet to achieve the same end. Tablillas were pillories used by the Spanish Inquisition and immobilised the toes when the victim was bound to the rack. Sharp wedges were hammered head-on into the toes one by one to obliterate the phalanx.



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Shooting the foot

Historically the Irish were not a nation known to use torture and apart from a brief flirtation with the Irish Boot, always considered torment, the perogative of the English. However in more recent years Irish terrorists have been associated with knee capping, i.e. shooting the victim through the knee. Because this was so commonplace, Belfast orthopaedic surgeons perfected new reconstructive techniques and combined with imporved rehabilitation the victim's chances of walking without a limp have improved. Agents of terror reacting to this changed their modis operandi and shot their victims through the foot.


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Oregon Boot
The Oregon Boot was the equivalent to the medieval ball and chain. A heavy iron leg cuff which was secured about the ankle and held in place by a stirrup like attachment passing under the heel. The purpose of the Oregon Boot was to restrict quick movement and was used on prisoners on outside work duty. The term Chain Gang was used to describe prisoners tethered together with with chains.


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Algophilia
Some people derive intense sexual pleasure from pain and this is called algophilia. It appears to take two forms sadism or the ecstacy associated with the infliction or witnessing pain; and masochism, the eroticism induced by the suffering of pain or persecution. In masochism as in sadism this pleasure principle is limited to or intimately associated with sexual excitation. It may be accompanied by or it may form a substitute for coitus. Pain can trigger a reaction from the autonomic nervous system causing an increase rate of breathing heart rate and blood pressure. In the masochist this may enhance sexual sensitivity or experience. It is thought many of the Inquisitors were sadists, and some sado-masochists.


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Toe Nail Tearing
Tearing out toe nails has long been a tool of terror and especially when they were performed with hot or cold iron pincers, or with sharp wooden skewers that could be dipped in boiling oil and driven under the toenails to slowly pry them away from the flesh.


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Bibliography
Abbott G 1997 Rack, rope and hot pincer: a history of tortuture and its instruments London: Brockhampton Press
Rossi WA 1993 The sexlife of the foot and shoe Florida:Krieger Publishing Co.
The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume VII
Jackson B. 1999 Splendid Slippers
Khalifah The Fisherman Of Baghdad Arabian Nights
Love B 1995 The encyclopaedia of unusual sex practices London: Greenwich Editions
On Persian Jews and their Persecutione
Patrin Web Journal Timeline of Romani History
Read MB 1991 Chopper: from the inside NSW: Sly Ink
Scott GR 1995 A history of torture London: Senate




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Acknowledgement
The author would like to thank all the people who contributed.



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