I post this here so it is on the right sub-forum instead of the G/T.

"Thesaurus Linguae Graecae"
Link:
http://www.tlg.uci.edu/

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An essay...


GREEK LANGUAGE

BY A. G. KRASSANAKIS


_Mechanisms, rules, parts of speech, declination, history etc of Greek Language

_Greek language is the most easiest and perfect in the world.

Translation in English:

LYNNE HOPTON (English teacher),

THANASIS YAPIJAKIS (Journalist)

http://www.krassanakis.gr/GREEKGLOSSA.htm



CHAPTER 1st

ELEMENTS OF WORDS





1. Language and word

Language is said (called) the total of words that with concrete rules of changes and combinations between them (with concrete syntax rules and inclination rules) a population is using in order to understand or to express. It is the tool of expression or the way with which the persons understand between them (each other) and reveal the feelings and the thought them.

Word is said (called) the smallest intellectual piece that is a sentence element hence an element of speech. It is an organized sounding mark (sign) which express a certain meaning of a sentence, according to its certain elements (root, subject, ending etc) or a part of speech (noun, adjective, pronoun etc. I.e.

Proposition (sentence): I am tailor = Εγώ είμαι ράπτης (Greek)

Words: I (= pronoun), am (verb), tailor (noun),

Εγώ (= noun), είμαι (= verb), ράπτης (= noun).

The meaning of words depends on their part of speech and their type (gender, number, case or person) as well as on their kind of simple derivation or composition. Their meaning, therefore, is regulated by the relationship of their components (prefix, root or them, ending or accent in case of simple word and a’ + b’ components in the case of compound (composite) words. I.e.:

Greek: γράφ-ω, γραφ-ή, συν-γραφ-έας, καλ-ός,ή,οί..

English: write, writ-ing, writ-er, good, good-s..

Note:

1) The meaning of a monosyllabic word or a words without constituent elements concern on what position (place) they are put in a sentence or on witch word is before them; namely if they are used as conjunctions or as proverbs i.e.:

English: The love, of love & I love, you love, he love..

Greek: Η μάνα μου μου είπε. Πως θα πας & Είπε πως θα πάμε.

Some times the meaning of a word it depends on his tone (which syllable is toned or if it is with strong or soft tone), see in Greek: πότε & ποτέ, η & ή, ε & έ…

2) In the syntax of speech the nouns’ meaning becomes also more specialized by articles, adjectives and participles. ie.:

Greek: Πήρα γράμμα & Πήρα το γράμμα. Μικρό γράμμα & μεγάλο γράμμα.

English: I took letter & I took the letter. Small letter & large letter






2. Elements of words

Compound words are constituted (formed) by the first (a’) and the second (b’) component, namely by their relative simple words. i.e.: συν-γράφω, παρ-ερμηνεύω, εξ-υπ-ακούγεται.. (As in English: under-standing,..)

Simple words are constituted by the following elements: ending (derivative and formative), subject (thema), root, epithema, prefix and accent.

1. Ending

Ending is called the changeable final part of an inclinable word. The linguistic element of the inclinable word stating what part of speech (noun, adjective, verb…) and what type (gender, number, case or person) is the significant part of the word. I.e. καλ-ός, καλ-οί, καλ-ή, καλ-ό, τέλ-ος, τελεί-α… (As in English: good & good-s, end > end-ing, end-ed…).

Derivative endings are those by which we create words from other words (from subjects of other words). For instance, the following endings:

-ινός: χθες > χθεσ-ινός,ή,ό, κοντά > κοντινός, μακρά > μακρινός, τώρα > τωρινός..

-(ά)ζω: σχόλια > σχολιάζω, αγκαλιά > αγκαλιάζω,..

,……………………………

Formative or declination endings are those by which we create words from roots or alternate at end of an inclinable word in order to achieve its formations (gender and case in nouns and adjectives, tenses and persons in verbs). I.e.:

Case ending (in masculine nouns and adjectives):

φόρ-ος, ου,ο,ε γραφ-ικ-ός,ου,ο,ε, Κώστ-ας,α,α,α, Μανώλ-ης,η,η,η…

φόροι,ων,ους,οι γραφ-ικ-οί,ών,ούς,οί, Κωστ-ήδες,ων,ες,ες...

Person endings (in present tense of verbs):

λύν-ω,εις,ει,ουμε,ετε,ουν

λύν-ομαι,εσαι,εται,ομαστε,εστε,ονται = passive voice

2. Subject (“thema”) and root

Subject is called the starting and immutable (unchanged) part of an inclinable word that states the main meaning. The initial phthongs (= sounds of words) of the word that remain unchanged in inclination (case subject). I.e.: τακτ-ός, τακτ-ού, τακ-τοί,… or are taken from the word to create another word (derivative subject): τακτ-ικός, τακτ-οποιώ…

Double subjective are called those words which are presented having two subjects in composition (synthesis) and derivation (production). I.e.:

γη > γήπεδο, μεσό-γειος, γε-ωργία

καλ-ός,ή,ό > καλό-παιδο, καλλι-γραφία (καλή γραφή)

Nominative: πόλ-η, πολ-ίτης, γάλα > γαλουχώ

Genitive: πόλεως, πολεοδομία, γάλατος, γαλατάς
Root is called the initial subject by whom a series of words or subjects are created (made). I.e.: πόλις or πόλ-η (root and initial subject πολ-) > πολ-ίτ-ης (the subject now is πολιτ-) > πολ-ιτικ-ός (the subject now is πολιτικ-) and πολιτικάντ-ης, πολιτεύομαι > πολιτευτ-ής…

Character is called the final phthong (sound of words) of the subject or of the root: γραφ-ή (Character is φ), γραφικ-ός (Character is κ)…

Epithema is the part of an ending that is put in an ending for certain meaning. I.e.: τακτ-ός > τακτ-(ικ)-ός

3. Prefix

Prefix is called the total group of phthongs (sounds of words) which is put before a subject in inclination, like the syllabic augment “e-“ in verbs. For example: λύνω > έ-λυνα, έ-λυσα, φέρνω > έ-φερα..

4. Accent

Accent is called a louder pronunciation of a syllable in a word (the accentuation of the voice in a syllable of a word). The accent is for the expansion of the pronunciation (it is difficult to pronounce the same all the syllable of a word) and in Greek language has notional importance. Accent combined with endings (Only in Greek) state what part of speech and sometimes what type is a word. I.e.:

εξοχ-ή, μετοχ-ή, Ξάνθ-η… (= noun)

έξοχ-η, μέτοχ-η, ξανθ-ή.. (= adjectives)

άδικ-ο, άπορ-ο, άτυχ-ο, .. (= adjective)

& αδικ-ώ, απορ-ώ, ατυχ-ώ.... (= verb),

έξοχ-ος, κάθετ-ος, υπόγει-ος,.... (= adjective)

& εξόχ-ως, καθέτ-ως, υπογεί-ως... (= adverb),...

ξεκίνα, περπάτα, αγάπα… (= imperative)

ξeκινά, περπατά, αγαπά… (= indicative)

Accent mark is called the marc (/) by which we indicate the accent syllable (the name given the sign in written speech above the vowel of the stressed accentuated syllable), e.g.: κα-λός, κά-λος,, ά-δικος...

In oral speech (in all languages) one syllable of each word is accented, except in words of one syllable, see in:

English: morning, pronounce “ mόrnιnk”,

In Greek: καλη-με-ρα, κα-κός, ά-τυ-χος....

In the Greek writing system we always put the accent mark on the stressed vowel letter: κα-λός, νέ-ος..

Something that does not occur in writing with Latin characters, see in English: morning (“ μόρνινκ”), America (“Αμέρικα”)...

3. Phthongs (= the sounds of words) & syllables

Syllable is called the smallest (least) piece in which a word can be cut and pronounced in achieving a comfortable acoustic apprehension. I.e: α-έ-ρας, καλ-ός … (In English: mo-ther, En-glish…)

Phthong (Greek φθόγγος, pronunciation <<fthόnkοs>>) in the Greek writing system is called one of the individual sounds (voices) of the word syllables. Phthongs are called the vowels and consonants, the individual sounds of the syllable in the words, as for example the phtongs of the words:

Greek words: γρά-φω, Ι-τα-λί-α = γ/ρ/ά/φ/ω, Ι/τ/α/λ/ί/α..

Latin words: I-ta-li-a, La-ti-um = I-t/a/l/y, L/at/i/u/m...

The total of different phthongs of all languages, ancient or modern, is just twenty (20), the following:

Greek writing: α, ε, ο, ου, ι, μ, ν, λ, ρ, σ, ζ, τ, δ, θ, π, β, φ, κ, γ, χ

Latin writing: a, e, o, u, i, m, n, l, r, s, z, t, th, dh, p, v, f, c, gh, h

Important note:

1) Every vowel in a word, alone or combined with a consonant before or alter it makes a syllable, i.e.: ο α-ε-τος, εν, εκ, κε-νός… because the consonants are not possible to be pronounced by themselves (separately); they are always accompanied by a vowel. That is why, in Greek, consonants are called «σύμφωνα = συν-φωνή» > Latin “con-sonors” > English “consonants” (agreeing, harmonized, according) or (along with the sound). I.e.: εν, νέ-ος, τον, ε-γέ-λα-σε..

Consonant syllable is called the syllable in which there is one or more consonant (a syllable containing vowel + consonant or consonants), e.g.: εκ, εν,την, βους, κε-νός..

Vowel syllable is called the syllable in which there is not consonant (a syllable containing a vowel only), e.g.: o α-έ-(ρας), η ω-(ραί)-α..

2) The Greek word <<Συλλαβή>> = syllable (in English) is constituted (formed) from the simple words συν-λαβή, from συν-λαμβάνω > συλλαβή = arrest, apprehension.

3) The phthongs, the vowels and consonants, are a conventional distinction, since the smaller part of a word is the syllable and the consonants are always pronounced with a vowel (that is where the words “φωνήεντα = vowels” and “σύμφωνα = consonants” come from).

4) It was the Greeks who first made the distinction between the phthongs, the consonants and the vowels, in a conventional way, because they realized by going so:

a) Fewer symbols of writing are required since the different kinds of phthongs are fewer (20 in number) than the different kinds of syllables (over 600, depending on the language),

b) Writing becomes more simplified (easier) and etymological, i.e. that we write what we say phonetically and the same time what we mean as a part of the speech and at the form of the word (type: gender, number, case, person..) by using the homophone letters.

5) Phthongs and syllables are not constituent (intellectual, etymogical) elements of words. Those that realize the linguistic expression are the ending, subject, root, prefix, accent in case of simple inclinable words and first and second components in case of a compound word, i.e.: γράφ-ω, συν-γράφ-ω, δια-γραφ-ή... Simply, in many words, certain linguistic elements may be a mere phthong or just one syllable. I.e.: το έν-α, η καλ-ή…In words without constituent elements or declension (inclination) or their total group of phthongs (sounds of words) is also their expressive element: δέκα, άλφα, απέναντι..

(For more see the book “The Greek writing system”, A. Krassanakis)







CHAPTER 2nd

THE PARTS OF SPEECH



1. Significance and types of parts of speech

Parts of speech are said the types of words of language from opinion of importance and syntax of (operation in the proposal). The parts of speech of Greek language are ten, the following:

the article = ο,η,το (= the)

the noun or substantive: αγάπη, Μαρία, Ευρώπη, παιδί, γάλα… (= the love, Maria, Europe, child, milk…)

the adjective: καλ-ός,ή,ό, ωραί-ος,α,ο… (= good, beautiful…).

the pronoun: εγώ, εσύ, αυτός,ή,ό… (= I, you, he, she, it, those…)

the verb: αγαπώ, ομιλώ, κλαίω… (= i love, i speak,…)

the participle: γραμμένος,η,ο, μαγεμένος,η,ο…

the adverb: κάτω, πάνω, εκεί….( = down, under, there…)

the preposition: από, μετά, σε, επί… (= from, after, in,…)

the conjunctions: and, όταν, γιατί…, (= and, when, why..)

the interjection: αμήν!, αχ! …. (= αmen!, ach!,…)

By the ten parts of speech of Greek language, the six: the article, the substantive, the surname, the pronoun, the action and the verb are said declinable, because they are conjugated. That is to say each one of them is presented in the speech with various forms, e.g.: καλ-ός, καλ-ή, καλ-ό, κα-λ-ές, καλ-ών… μαγεμέν-ος, μαγεμέν-ου, άλλ-ος, άλλ-οι…

Τhe remainder four: the adverb, the intention, the contact and the interjection, are said un-delineated, because in speech each one of them is always presented with the same form, e.g.: εδώ, εκεί, αμάν, και...

2. Declinable parts of speech

a. What is inclination, types etc

Inclination is said the special way with which take shape the falls bending and the years and the persons of verb. The way with which are altered the declinable words in the speech. The inclination becomes in one hand with endings (conclusions, suffices) that are proportional with the part of speech, the gender, the number and the declination cases or the person of other word and in other hand with the locomotion of tone in certain cases or persons, as well as with the addition of the e- in certain tense of verbs, see e.g.: καλ-ός, καλ-ού, καλ-οί… τιμ-ώ, τιμ-άς, τιμ-ά, ετίμ-ησα,..

Types of (words) are said the forms that take the declinable words at the syntax (in the speech), the cases of word (and their genders) in the declination and persons in the verbs, consequently the various forms that take the declinable words for individual intelligent differences.

b. Cases of declination

Cases of declination are said the changes (types, forms) that present or take the article, the noun or substantives, the adjectives, the participle and the pronouns in the speech, from where these are called also declinated parts of speech: Μαρί-α, Μαρί-ας, Μαρί-ες = case of noun, καλ-ός, καλ-ού, καλ-οί... = cases of adjective.

The cases of declination of Greek language are four: the nominative, general, the accusative and the vocative, singular and plural number.

1. The nominative reveals the subject of proposal (= what for is said the proposal), as well as his defendant (= what is said for the subject). The case that him we handled, in order to we answer in the question "what, who, a, + verb of proposal", see e.g.:

_Ο Γιάννης είναι καλός μαθητής. = Yannis (subject) is good student.

_Ο μαθητής πάει στο δωμάτιο. = The student (subject) is going in to the room.

2. General reveals what in it belongs or is reported what for we speak. The case that we handled, when we want to show the owner of somebody, hence answers in the question "name + which of you/us etc), e.g.:

_Το μήλο του Γιάννη = the apple of John

3. The accusative reveals the object, as well as all the other syntactic terms (place, tense or time, sum etc), if they are declared with declinable word or with syntactic total. Consequently it is the case that we handled, in order to we answer in the questions: "who + verb of proposal" (for the object), "where/when/how/how many/because + verb of proposal" (for the other terms - determinations), see e.g.:

_Γιώργο, η Μαρία κτύπησε τον Αντώνη την Δευτέρα = George, Mary (subject) stroked Antonis (objective) in the Monday.

(When stroked; = Monday = the time).

_ Εγώ θα πάω με τα πόδια στο σχολείο = I will go with the legs (how I will go; = with the legs = the way, the means) to the school (where I will go; = to the school = the place).

_ Πάω/πήγα δέκα κιλά πατάτες = I go/it went ten kilos potatoes (I go/it went how many = ten kilos = the quantity.)

The vocative reveals the one that we dedicate, invite or salute a man/woman etc, as well as the one in which is addressed the proposal (the answer in the question "in who, a you speak"). The case that we handled, when we call somebody or something, e.g.:

_ Εγώ, αγαπητή μου, είπα να φύγουμε αύριο = I, dear, I say him we leave for tomorrow.

_Ναι, Μαρία, πήγα. = Yes, Marry, I went.

g. Numbers of declinations

The cases of declinations have two numbers, the singular and the plural.

Singular number is said the cases that reveal that important of them is in the number a thing or animal etc... or a total or part of total:

_Ο Γιάννης, η Μαρία = Yannis, Maria.. = an individual,

_Η τάξη, το σχολείο, το Υπουργείο = the order/the school/the Ministry = a total.

_ Το ένα τρίτο = The one third of (1/3) order = 1 part from three

Plural number is said the cases that reveal that important of them is in the number many or all the total that we speak. Regularly the precise number of what we speak is declared with quantitative determination. If we do not put such determination, then is meant the "all," or it means that we speak for many (when we do not put article), see eg: _ You bring books (= many). Bring books (= all concrete).

_Οι κουρείς των Αθηνών = the barbers of Athens (= all of Athens).

_ Οι δέκα κουρείς = the ten barbers that left (= ten)




CHAPTER 3rd

THE HISTORY OF GREEK LANGUAGE



1. Lies told about Greek language

a. Lie of Greek historical scrtipt

According to a medieval point of view expressed by Dutch philologist Desiderius Erasmus (1457 – 1536 A.D.) in the <<Dialogus de recta Latini Graecique serminis pronunciatione>>, which, unfortunately, remains even nowadays the official thesis of foreign scholars about the Greek Grammar, the Greek script is “historical”. That means that the New Greek write in the way their forefathers were once used to write speak. They write in the ancient way (the ancient pronounce), but their pronunciation is different, (the pronounce of today).

The ancient Greek language is different (variant) compared to the modern one because the ancient Greek contained the phthongs (sound, voice of words) ω, η, υ, which have survived in the modern Greek script traditionally and historically!

The above is wrong, because:

1) Historical script is the script with the Latin characters (= English, Dutch, France etc).

2) In ancient Greek language there are the same phthongs (sounds, voices of words) as in modern. Simple in Greek script, old and modern, there are homophone (same sound, same voice) letters, the letters: o & ω = (o), ε & αι = [ ε], η & υ & ι & ει & οι & υι = [ι]..., and each word is written with this homophones letters according to its etymology (= according to its part of speech, form of word: gender, number, case... and derivation or composition) on the one hand in order to establish (help) its meaning and on the other to distinguish the homophone (same sounds) words, i.e.: καλώ & καλό, κουτί & κουτή & κουτοί, φύλο & φύλλο,...

Rules:

The verbs are writing with –ω: σήκω, καλώ, φοιτώ, λέγω...

The adverbs with –ω(ς): καλώς, κακώς... παρακάτω, άνω, κάτω…

The females with –η: Καλή, κακή, Νίκη, νίκη...

The males with –ο: Καλός, κακός, Νίκος...

The neutrals with –ο,ι: σύκο, κακό, ελαφρό... τυρί, φιλί...

,..............

Phonetic (oral speech): “kalό, sίko, άporo, άdhiko.....

& Script with the Greek script:

καλ-ό, σύκ-ο, άπορ-ο, άδικ-ο,...

(the neutrals are writing at ending with letter –ο )

& καλ-ώ, σήκ-ω, απορ-ώ, αδικ-ώ,...

(the verbs are writing at ending with letter -ω)

In Greek scrip, if you see a written word with the letter –ω (at the ending), it is mean that this word is verb: καλ-ώ,είς... With the letter -o = neuter: καλ-ό, σύκο.., with the letter -η = masculine: καλ-ή, καλ-ής.....

In examining the words we notice that many of them are homophones (similar voice, same sound words) which was caused by either phonological variation or their mutations in time and on inflection (because of homophonic endings): καλ(έ)-ω > καλώ, καλ(έ)-εις > καλείς, καλ(έ)-ει > καλεί... (= verb, ρήμα) & καλός, καλή, καλό (= adjective, επίθετο ) & καλός > καλοί (plural)...

Moreover in examining these same sound words, we notice that they do not belong to the same kind of speech or gender or form of the words.

In addition the Greek script have for some phthongs more letters than one (see o & ω, η & υ & ι...), so that by writing some parts of speech or types (gender, case etc) of the words with some homophone letters on the one hand and with the rest on the other hand for suggestion. In that way we distinguish between the same sound words and find help in the analysis and discovering the meaning of a word. For instance:

Phonetically: “καλός, καλί, καλίς, καλό..”

= In Greek script (Orthographically):

καλώ, καλείς, καλεί... (With –ω, if it is verb)

καλό, καλή, καλής, ... (With – ο,η, if it is adjective)

καλώς (With –ως, if it is adverb) & καλός (with –ος if it is adjective)

καλή (With –η, if it is singular) & καλοί (with –οι, if it is plural)

Same: “ίλι” = ύλη & ίλη & ήλοι & είλη, “ίδι” = είδη & ήδη & Ίδη, «λίπι» = λύπη & λείπει & λίπη, «φίλο» = φίλο & φύλο & φύλλο, «λίρα»= λίρα & λύρα, «κουτί» = κουτί & κουτοί & κουτή...

The examples above show us that whenever there are no the homophone letters, we are not able to know what we write. Because of the same sound words we are not able to distinguish whether a words is noun or verb, male or female, plural or singular....

(For more see the book: <<The Greek writing system>>, A. Krassanakis)

b. Lie of maternal Indo - German or Indo-European Language

According to certain European linguistics of 18/19th century AD (Italian F. Sasseti, German F. Bopp, English W. Jones and others) three thousand years ago all the peoples from India to Germany had a common language. From this language, so called <<Maternal Indo- German or Indo-European Language>, other languages like Greek, Latin etc have been derived! It is concluded, because these languages have some common words.

The above is wrong, because:

a) All language has common words, because of the geography, history, emporium, sciences… where there are no borderlands and the athletes, doctors, operatives, workmen… use common words, same names, i.e.: Ολυμπία > Olympia, Λονδίνο > London, Χρηστός > Christ…. (For more see “Foreign words or linguistics loans”. )

b) If such language had existed, she will had left indication, script or architect monuments (inscription, epigraphs etc)

c) The language of a commonalty is creature of its lingual ability (For more see the book: «Linguistics Lessons», A. Krassanakis) in the time. See the New Greek language that is different to ancient.

d) The Greek words are formed (borne) by the Greeks time to time through:

a) Sound making

Sound made words are those made by the imitation of sounds in the environment i.e.: β... > βοώ, βόμβος, βόμβα... μπαμ – μπουμ > μπαλωθιά, μπαρούτι, μπουμπουνητό, μπόμπα... τρ... > τρίβω, τρίζω, τρυπάνι... γαβ – γαβ > γαβγίζω.... (See in English: bomb, cry, …)

b) Derivation:

Derived words are those who born from another, i.e.: κράτος > κρατικός, (See in English: govern > government, love > lovely…)

c) Composition (synthesis):

Compounded words are those who born from two or more others: δια + κράτος > δια- κρατικός, αστυ-φύλακας…

(See in English: police-man, land-lord, Englishman….)

d) Falsification

Falsified words are those who born from other with phthongic alteration (which means addition, abstraction, transposition-removal or alternation) of a sounding in an ancient word i.e.: χώρα (τόπου) & (χ)ώρα > ώρα (χρόνου), κόνις >(σ)κόνη, πυρία > (σ)πύρ(τ)α, σπόγγος > σφουγγάρι...

(See in English: live (pronunciation “laiv”)> living (pronunciation “livink”), athlete > athleticism…)

e) Abusive derivation which means changing the:

a. Type (= the gender, the case and the number) of an ancient word, i.e.: αι Αθήναι>η Αθήνα, αι Θήβαι > η θήβα, ο έμπορος, > η έμπορος, ο σύζυγος > η σύζυγος.

b. The part of speech (an adjective turned into a noun, for instance) of an ancient word, i.e.: κεραμική, μηχανική (Here the words are adjectives) ... τέχνη > η κεραμική, η μηχανική (Here the words are nouns), Same: παράγωγος > ο παραγωγός, παράγωγη > η παραγωγή, ζεστή > η ζέστη,

c. The typological ending (form) of an ancient word (let’s refer, for instance, the abolition of the third kind of ancient accidence – conjugation): λύσ-ις > λύσ-η, οντότ-ης > οντότ-ητα, Ελλά-ς > Ελλ-άδα, ρήτ-ωρ > ρήτ-ορας, κλητ-ήρ > κλητήρας….

3. Periods of Greek Language

Greek Language is very old, the oldest in Europe and perhaps in the whole World. Its existence is referred in the 7th Century BC, as historical written monuments have shown (Diploes inscription), but its roots are hidden in the depths of centuries as the Homeric epics and the Linear Writings A and B have witnessed. It is merely not found in each time possessing the same vocabulary, the same morphology, etc. we can see below.

The language of every people does not follow similar manners of speech from time to time. It presents similarities as well as differences in inflection or in sentence construction of words, etc from place to place as well.

Ancient Greek Modern (new Greek

Εμπρός εις την θάλασσα. = Μπροστά στην θάλασσα.

Σήμερον όλοι εορτάζουν. = Σήμερα όλοι γιορτάζουν.

Επέρασεν και η Αποκριά. = Πέρασε και η Αποκριά.

Όλοι κατέβησαν εις τον αιγιαλόν = Όλοι κατέβηκαν στον γιαλό

Μία χελιδών έαρ ού ποιεί. = Ένα χελιδόνι δεν φέρνει την άνοιξη.

,.................

This is due to the fact that:

1) From time to time sciences and technology change or develop, feeding with new words the vocabulary. Tools and activities were different fifty years ago new tools and new activities to day are called in different names.

2) The language is differentiated continuously in order to be simpler and more precis in expression.

Roughly, the Greek language is divided in three long periods: The ancient (up to 300 A.D.), the Medieval (300 – 1453 A.D.) and the modern (recent) period (1453 A.D. – today). Analytically in the following:

1) First period, the archaic

The period from very old times until the Persian wars (490 BC)

a) Until the Minoan times (from? until 1400 before Christ)

An indication of what about was the kind of language in the Minoan times cab be found of language in decoding by M. Ventris and J. Chadwich of the tablets written in the Linear writing B’, where one is able to realize the little differentiation of the next period.

Words from Linear writing B’: pome (ποιμήν), patter (πατήρ), meri (μέρη, μέλη), doelos (δούλος), jero (ιερό)....

b) Pre classical times

This is the period of the ancient dialects: Ionic, Doric and Aeolic. A precise indication of how the language of that time can be found in the literary works of Homer, Hesiod, Tyrtaeos, Simonides, Aeschylus, Sophocles, and other prose and rhyme writers.

Dipylos tablet, 8th – 7th century BC

ΗΟS NYN ORXESTΟΝ ΠΑΝΤΟΝ ΑΤΑLOTATA..........

Attician inscription of 5th century BC.

ΕΔΟΧΣΕΝ Ε ΒΟΛΕΙ ΚΑΙ ΤΟ ΔΕΜΟΙ....

Spartian dialect: Αμές δ`ε γ' εσόμεθα πολλ~ω κάρρονες

Tyrtaios (685 - 667 BC):

Τεθνάμμενας γ`αρ καλόν ενί προμάχοισι πεσόντα

ανδρ' αγαθόν περί η πατρίδι μαρνάμενον

τ`ην δ' αυτού προλιπόντα κα`ι πίονας αγρούς

πτωχεύειν πάντων εστ' ανιηρότατον.... (Υποθήκη)

Homer (8/7ος century B.C.):

Μήνιν αειδε, Θε~α, Πηληιάδε?ω Αχιλλ~ηος..

Note:

a) In those times the name “HELLAS” (ΕΛΛΑΣ = Greece) was not still a general name, because every state – city had a separate government, a different writing, etc There were the tribes of the so called Ionians (Athenians), Dorians (Spartans & Macedonians), Aeolians.

b) In 1400 BC the decline of the Minoan Empire and the Minoan civilization occurred but the people survived. Later under a new name, the name EΛΛΑΣ – ΕΛΛΗΝΕΣ (= Greece, Greeks) appeared. However, the decision making center now was not Crete anymore but Delphi and most important cities were Athens, Sparta, Thebes, Pella ... The same happened with the Romans and the Venetians, the English and the Americans, etc.

c) From 1300 BC tile 750 BC (Dipylos inscription) the replacement of the Lenear Writing B’ with the Writing system of our days places.

d) If we check the forty words of the first homeric poetical lines, we can realise that to day eleven (11) words are similarly spoken: θεά, ηρώων, αυτούς, και, το, τα, η, ο βουλή, πολλά, εξ, πρώτα... fourteen (14) words obtained a small phthongic differentiation in their endings (therefore inclination): ψυχάς > ψυχές. Αχιλλεύς > Αχιλλέας, μήνις > μανία, διαστήτη > διάσταση, άλγεα – άλγη.... and the rest can be found as base (theme) for other words.

2) Second period, the Classical

The period from the Persian wars to the end of 4th century BC (490 – 300 BC), which is called Classical or Attic period, because Athens (Attica, Attic) was the center of the letters and arts.

A precise indication for the condition of the language in that period can be found in the works of Herothotos, Thucidhidhis, Xenophon, Platon, Lyssias, Aeschinis, Aristotle and other prose and rhyme writers of that time.

<< άρχεται dε πόλεμος ενθέδε ήδη Αθηνα΄λιων και Πελοπονησίων και των εκατέροις ξυμμάχων...>> (Thucidhidhis “Plataica B 1 – 6)

In the 4th century BC, after the victories (and the splendor) against Persians, common alphabet and writing are established for all Greeks as well as a common name (the name “Hellenes”).

By the victories of Alexander the Great the Greek language of that period become the international language of the era especially in the hellenized areas of the east (Syria, Persia, Egypt, etc).

3) Third period, the Alexandrine

The period from the times of Alexander’s successors (from the Hellenistic times) to the times of the emperor Octavian Augustus (300 – 30 BC), which is called Alexandrine because the center of the Greek language (of letters and arts) has been transferred in Alexandria, Egypt.

A precise indication for the condition of the language in that period can be found in the works of Theoctitos, Dhiodhotos os Sicily, Apollonios of Rhodes, even in the works of the Apostles.

<<Και εκδύσαντες αυτόν περιέθηκαν χλαμύδα κοκκίνην>> (Evangelist)

4) Fourth period, the Latin

The period from the times of the emperor Octavian Augustus to the times of Justinian (30 BC – 527 AD). In the beginning of the 4th century AD Constantinople becomes the center of the Greek language. However the Greek language is not the official in the eastern Roman Empire. Latin remains the official language until 527 AD. Many words of the Greek language in that period are substituted by Roman (Latin) words which in their majority are been maintained up to this, such as: κάστρο, φρατζόλα, κελί, σπίτι, μπαρμπέρης...
5) The fight period, the Byzantine

The period from the times Justinian’s times to the Capture of Constantinople (528 – 1453 AD), which is called the Byzantine period, because the center of the Greek language (of the Greek letters and arts) has been the Byzantio (= the Constantinople).

6) Sixth period, the Turkish period

The period from the times of the Capture of Constantinople (from Turkish) and later from Venetian to the Greek revolution (1453 – 1821 AD).

Many words of the conquerors have been maintained up to this day

Turkish words: μπογιατζής (boyatzi), χασάπης (kasap), χούι, χαράτσι...

Venetian words: μπουκάλα, φρατζόλα, μποτίλια...

7) Seventh period, the New Greek

From the Greek revolution of 1821 until nowadays. This is the period of the New Greek, the pure (“Katharevussa”) and the popular (“demotic”) Greek language.

a. Atticism

During the Roman Era, when the Greek language was still international (circa the end of the 1st Century AD), some Greek writers, bookish mans, literary mans etc, appeared, who did not write in their contemporary language, but in the Attic authors’ language of the Classical Era. They were urged in this activity not only by their trust to the superiority (the high standards) of the Attic dialect but also by their perception whey realized that the Greek Language of their times had been invaded occupied by barbarisms (foreign words, idiom etc.) because of ignorance or degeneration, 50 it should not be immortalized. This movement was called Atticism and the authors, who estimated the Attic dialect as their ideal language, Atticists, As a right usage criterion was estimated the localization of a word or a type in the texts of the Attic writers of the 5th and the 4th Century BC, not the fact that this word or this type were useless in the language of their times.

As a result of Atticism was the creation of bilinguality which means the usage of two different linguistic forms: The one (the old – fashioned) mainly in the written speech and the other (the popular) mainly in the oral speech. The bilinguality occurred till 1976 when Demotic (the popular) was established officially.

The most significant Atticists were Dionisysius of Alicarnassus, Lucian, Plutarch and Arian.

b. Katharevousa (= “Pure Language”)

Katharevousa (language) was the language that appeared for first time in the years of the Turkish Occupation as a compromising solution between the Byzantine Atticism and the spoken language.

Katharevousa, the “pure” language, some times was found to be closer to the ancient Greek Language (then it was called αρχαΐζουσα or άκρατος = strict pure language) and some times closer to the Modern Greek Language (then it was called simplified or simple pure language).

The Katharevousians, like the Atticists, started from the perception that the spoken language of their times was barbaric and rude, full of idioms and morphologically dissimilar (many foreign words, many idioms, many different – Greek or foreign – endings, etc). Thus, it was unable to express arts and sciences in a simple and clear way. Because of this condition, their main aim was the complete hellenization of the vocabulary, a plan that was fulfilled finally in a great extent. Some foreign words, which were transformed into Greek, were the following.

From Italian: γαζέτα, σπετσαρία, ρετσέτα, μπαρμπέρης…

Into Greek: εφημερίδα, φαρμακείο, συνταγή, κουρέας

From Turkish: αμανάτι, μεϊντάνι, νταμάρι, πεχλιβάνης, τεμπεσίρι, τζαμπάζης

Into Greek: ενέχυρο, αγορά, λατομείο, παλαιστής, κιμωλία, ζωέμπορος.

c. Demotic

Demotic is the language all Greeks speak today. It is named so because it is used by all demotes (c i t i z e n s ) , it is (p a n) demotic (p u b l i c) in contrast to Katharevousa which was not public and popular.

Linguistic matter

Linguistic Matter was “the existing quarrel until 1976 between the oral language of the public and the official written language”. By the appearance of Atticism during the Roman times, the bilinguality of the Greek Language obtained the starting point for instance, while others were used to say «η τάξη, της τάξης, οι τάξεις, ψάρι, κυβέρνηση, κήρυκας, κρεοπώλης» others were used to say «η τάξις, τση τάξης, ιχθύς, ελαιόλαδο, κυβέρνησις, τελάλης, χασάπης” and other were used to say «η τάξις, της τάξεως, αι τάξεις, οψάριον, έλαιον, γκουβέρνο» according to the descent and the education of everyone.

Because of this situation a justified movement started about the “arrangement” of the language by the men of letters (journalists, authors, poets). However, they could not find an agreement about how this wish would become a reality. This difficulty brought a war of arguments between the Katharevousians (who strove for the return of the ancient Greek Language and especially that one of Attica in the 5th Century BC) and the Demoticistes (who proffered the modern Greek Language).

Katharevousians: L.Photiades, A.Grazi, N.Doukas, N.Theotokis, P. Kodrikas, P. Soutsos, K.Kondos, and others.

Demoticistes: Rigas Pheraeos, G.Kostandas, D.Philippides, I. Vilaras, A. Christopoulos, D. Solomos, D. Vernadakis, I. Psicharis, M. Triantaphilides, and others.

Adamantios Corais was standing between the two opinions.

Finally, politics inserted/ intervened! The conservatives, moved by the ideal ancient Greek standards, demanded the return of the ancient Greek Language in the Attic way, while the leftists reacted, because they considered it an utopia or something very difficult to come true. They preferred the Greek Language in the condition formed by the time and the circumstances. The conservatives won in this conflict and the respective education started to be applied in schools. Until the establishment of the desirable language, the Greek were used to speak the modern Greek language almost like to day and write the schools official documents in a language closer to the ancient dialect of Attica. For instance, while the Greeks were speaking «η Αθήνα, η τάξη» their written way should be «αι Αθήναι, η τάξις». This style of writing was called Katharevousa by the archaists because it demanded Greek words only, so that to be a purely Greek language therefore mentally clear.

However, the desirable return of the ancient Greek Language was proved unattainable and that was an expected conclusion because:

1) On the one hand students in schools were taught the ancient Attic dialect deficiently; on the other hand the local dialect (Cretan, Vlachian…) or a language similar to the Greek Demotic Language nowadays was in daily usage at home and work.

2) The language is living organism that is developed, enriched, improved continuously. Therefore, nothing can bring it backwards-to a previous day.

a) The changes in form and in inclination of certain groups of words did not occur accidentally but similarly to other change, for practical reasons. I.e. (simplification) nouns ending in –is: τάξις, πράξις… were transformed into nouns ending in –η in order to obtain the same inclination with nouns ending in – η: πηγή, νίκη…
b) Many words were changed by time phonologically for euphony or meaning differentiation. For instance: χώρα (geographical) and χώρα > ώρα (time), γράφμα > γράμμα (more euphony), συνμαθητής > συμμαθητής (more euphony)…

c) Many words meaning old times men’s professions became words of two genders. i.e. o γιατρός > η γιατρός (masculine) or γιατρίνα (feminine), ο έμπορος > ο, η έμπορος or o έμπορας (masculine) and η εμπόρισσα (feminine)….

Αs a result, the oral or written speech in school was different compared to the oral or written speech at home or at work. (For example, in school compositions students were writing « α ι μ η τ έ ρ α ι, ε ι ς τ α ς Α θ ή ν α ς» however, at home they were saying «ο ι μ α ν ά δ ε ς, σ τ η ν Α θ ή ν α». Τhe consequences for many students were the linguistic confusion or the school a- version.

Facing this problem, a conservative government under the leadership of Constantine Karamanlis, despite of the fact that in older times the conservatives fought the establishment of the Demotic language, in 1976 established unconstrained (unforcedly) the Contemporary Greek or Demotic Language a long with the linguistic standards (vocabulary and inclination) referred in the book «Νέ ο ε λ λ η ν ι κ ή Γ ρ α μ μ α τ ι κ ή» (Modern Greek Grammar Ο.Α.Ε.Δ Publication, Athens 1976).

The “one accent” system was established in 1982 by the socialist government under the leadership of Andreas Papandreou. Its establishment took place to make the Greek writing easier. Nevertheless, in was also a demand of Computer users because 20 Computers of that generation did not contain any plectrum for accents or signals. The reason was the lack of signs in the Latin alphabet (the aspiration marks, the accents and the solvent marks).

A significant role in the formation of the modern style of the contemporary Greek Language haw been played the linguist M. Triantaphillides (“Grammar of the Demotic Greek Language”) as well as by many journalists and authors of our times.





CHAPTER 4th

GREEK LANGUAGES & THE OTHERS







1. Characteristics & principles of the Greek language

(Differences between Greek and other language)

The Greek language compared to another language presents proportional similarities and differences. In a general view and in relation to the other languages, it disposes the following elements, which make the Greek language separate and expressive in a high level potentiality:

(1) It possesses an infinite productive ability, unique in the whole word (in all around the world), because its words are farmed by combinations of mentalinguistic elements like a root or a theme + an ending, etc., not 6y a periphrasis that other languages (Chinese, Japanese, English, etc.) follow. From a root or a theme a lot of words can by formed. I.e. Simple words: γ ρ ά φ ω, γ ρ α φ ή, γ ρ α φ–ι κ ός, γ ρ α φ–έ ας, γ ρ ά μ μ α. Compound words σ υ ν – γ ρ ά φ ω , σ υ ν – γ ρ α φ - ή , σ υ ν – γ ρ α φ – έ α ς.

(2) Its endings, typological and productive, are not accidental but proportionate, with the part of speech and the type (gender, number, case, or person), therefore they have an order. For instance, verbs, endings in –ω,εις,ει: αδικ-ώ, αδικ-είς, αδικ-εί.. and adjectives, endings in – os,η,ό: καλ-ός, καλ-ή, καλ-ό, …

(3) It contains many words (a very rich vocabulary), the greatest collection in comparison to other languages due on the one hand to its long linguistic history and on the hand to its expressive manner, in the Greek Language, every meaning is expressed by its own word. In other languages, many words have many different meanings in a way we meet in Greek as well. I.e. χ ρ υ σ ή = the adjective, χ ρ υ σ ή = the disease, etc. Or, many meanings are given in a periphrastic way, the same way we see in Greek, as well. I.e. παιδάκι – μικρό παιδί, Ηλιούπολη = Ηλίου πόλη…

(4) Its words, simple and compound, are usually polysyllabic (two syllables and more) thanks to the endings; as a result, they are comprehensive as well as easy in pronunciation: καλημέρα, Γιώργος

Monosyllabic words are only certain types of the article and some undeclinable words.

(5) Its words did not have combinations of phthongs difficult in pronunciation.

The Greek words have been developed syllabically and all phthongs contain a similar intensity in pronunciation unless there is an accented syllable: κ α - λ ό ς, κ α – λ η – μ έ – ρ α.

They syllables of the Greek words are either a vowel alone or a vowel and a consonant together: οι α-ε-τοί, εκ, το… two or three consonants are together only whether the first or the third is semivowel (μ, ν, λ, ρ, σ, ζ): έ-γρα-ψα, Στα-θης, ά-ρτος, ά-ρθρο.

In this case, the pronunciation is more simple and comfortable. The combinations νρ, νλ, νμ, να, νζ, πμ, βμ, φμ, receive rejection or assimilation: σ υ ν – ρ ά π τ ω > σ υ ρ ρ ά π τ ω, έ ν λ ο γ ο ς > έ λ λ ο γ ο ς, γ ρ ά φ μ α > γ ρ ά μ μ α, σ ύ (ν) ζ υ γ ο ς.

(6) It has three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter) and three different articles (ο, η, το): ο π α τ έ ρ α ς, η μ ά ν α, τ ο π α ι δ ί.

(7) The verb, according to its ending, reveals its subject as a person of speech (whether the subject is the speaker, the listener (auditor) or a third person) as well as the voice (active or passive) : λύ ν – ω, meaning λ, the speaker = subject , λ ύ ν – ε ι ς meaning you, the listener = subject, λ ύ ν –ει meaning he, she, it = the third = subject, λ ύ ν – ω = action and λ ύ ν - ο μ α ι = passion.

(8) Its words are, in their majority, declinable (The exclamations, the prepositions, the conjunctions and the adverbs are not declinable.) and each of the syntactical parts of a sentence (subject, object, predicate) has a certain case to report (The subject in Nominative, the object in Accusative…) so that they can remain distinct when they are mixed up. I.e:

(Ε γ ώ) + α γ α π ώ + τ η ν Μ α ρ ί α + δ ύ ο χ ρ ό ν ι α

= Α γ α π ώ + ε γ ώ + τ η ν Μ α ρ ί α + δ ύ ο χ ρ ό ν ι α

= Ε γ ώ + τ η ν Μ α ρ ί α + δ ύ ο χ ρ ό ν ι α + α γ α π ώ

= Δ ύ ο χ ρ ό ν ι α + α γ α π ώ + τ η ν Μ α ρ ί α + ε γ ώ .

(9) Ιts parts of speech are formed by certain endings, therefore there is no need of any special syntax to show what part of speech is a word in a sentence. This does not occur in a lot of other languages such as English, Russian, etc. because there a name or a pronoun + a word = a verb, as well as an article + a word = a noun: Nick loves, I love, the love (Ο Νίκος αγαπάει, αγαπώ, η αγάπη).

(10) It possesses many syntactical formations (syntax ways):

Το τραίνο οδηγείται από τον Γιώργο (Passive Syntax)

= Ο Γιώργος οδηγεί το τραίνο (Active Syntax)

= Ο Γιώργος είναι οδηγός του τραίνου (Attributive Syntax).

(11) The accents of its words (combined with the endings) indicate the parts of speech or the types of the words: λάβ – ει, γράφει, έξοχ-η, συμμέτοχ-η, = λαβ-ή, γραφ-ή, εξοχ-ή, συμμετοχ-ή. Here, the accented syllable of the words is not any syllable or the final syllable or the penult syllable for the all the words, as it is met in other languages, but that syllable which is fixed by the meaning or by the part of speech or by its type. For example, if the adjectives are accented on the antepenult syllable, the nouns are accented on the final syllable of the penult syllable:

συμμέτοχη, ανάγωγη, παράγωγη,- άξια, άγια = adjectives.

Συμμετοχή, αναγωγή, παραγωγή – αξία, αγία = nouns.

On the other hand, in the other languages:

(a) There is no strong productive ability because the words and their types are formed mainly in a periphrastic way (as it can be seen in English: I love, he loves, the love) and not by using the linguistic elements root or subject + ending, etc.

(b) The words are not articulated with the mentalinguistic elements prefix + subject + ending, at least in the rich way and the good arrangement of the Greek Language.

(c) The accent (in languages that present polysyllabic words) is only the concretization and the expansion of pronunciation; this occurs on some accidental syllable, on the final syllable (in French), on the penult or the antepenult syllable (in English).

Despite its existence, the accent is not noted in the writing because there is nothing more to present as it happens in the Greek Language. I.e. (English) morning (μόρνιγκ), fire (φάϊαρ), Μary (Mέρι).

Especially:

(1) Chinese Language is the opposite of Greek Language. There are no endings in Chinese, therefore no inclination and no polysyllabic words. The Chinese words are monosyllabic (the compound words have two syllables): “tsim” = gold, “pe” = cup, “tsim pe” = the golden cup.

In the Chinese Language every gender usualy passesses its own words. For example, her there is no “Anthony” and “Antonia”

(2) English Language does not possess inclination endings, by almost any means (i.e.: good = καλός, ή, ό, καλοί, καλών, καλές, καλώς) therefore there are only least inclinations and words with few syllables: go, go out, go up, go down. The English Language possesses (solely) productive words: lov –e ability, lov-able, lov-ableness, lov-ably, love-less, love-ly, lov-er, lov-ing,

As it is in Greek Language, the genders here are also three, however the article is one or similar for the three genders, the article “the”. The word gender is rarely distinguished through an ending (some feminine words have the ending -ess). Usually in English every gender

Contains its own special words, no common words that can change the gender, like in Greek, by just adding the proportionate ending.

The actor (o ηθοποιός) – the actress (η ηθοποιός)

The poet (o ποιητής) – the poetess (η ποιήτρια)

The boy (το αγόρι) - the girl (το κορίτσι)

In English Language, many words belong in many parts of speech or types, like.

The article the + word = noun: the love = η αγάπη

Τhe article the + word with – s” = plural of noun: the loves = οι αγάπες

The word of + word = genitive: of love = της αγάπης

Name or pronouns + word = verb: I love = αγαπώ, Mary loves = η Μαρία αγαπά

Word + word = adjective + nun: love affair = Ερωτική σχέση, love letter = ερωτικό γράμμα

The English word verb, without endings, does not reveal which of the parts of speech (speaker, listener, or a third person) is its subject (= the person that acts or receives the stated act). In order to reveal this we put before the verb some pronoun or other words. It is the reason that these are not omitted in the English Language or certain terms are put together like, for instance, subject + verb:

I love = (εγώ) αγαπώ = verb, [a’ person, the speaker]

You love = (εσύ) αγαπάς = verb [b’ person = the listener]

He loves = (αυτός) αγαπά = c’ person, the person they are talking about

She loves = (αυτή) αγαπά = c’ person, the person they are talking about

Mary loves = (Η Μαρία) αγαπά = c’ person, a concrete person

The love = (η) αγάπη = noun in Nominative

Of the love = (της) αγάπης = noun in Genitive

(3) Latin Language is similar in many elements to Greek Language. Its words are articulated in Greek way, it possesses three genders, endings and inclinations, however not according to the orders the extension and the variety of the Greek Language: am – o, am – as, am – at, magnus, - a, - um.

(4) Italian Language is a very faithful follower of Latin Language in many elements. It does not possess the neuter gender. So as a consequence, the gender of its words sometimes is similar and sometimes is not similar to the gender of the same words in Greek and Latin language, see for example:

Latin Greek

il padre = ο πατέρας, same gender

la madre = η μητέρα, same gender

il bastone (masculine gender) = η μπαστούνα (female gender)

la carta (female gender) = ο χάρτης (masculine gender)

il libro (masculine gender) = το βιβλίο (neuter gender)

il ragazo = ο νεαρός & το αγόρι,

la ragaza = η νεαρά & το κορίτσι.

(For further information’s see the book: “Scientific Glossology (Linguistics)” by A. Krassanakis.)

2. The wealth, the expressive ability and the universal contribution of Greek Language

Greek Language is one of the richest and most expressive languages of world (mankind).

Greek language presents a high expressive ability, because:

(a) Contains many syntax formations of speech [active and passive voice, declaration (opinion) and situation (condition) etc.]: O Μανώλης κτυπά τον Νίκο = Ο Νίκος κτυπιέται από τον Μανώλη, Γνωρίζω το θέμα = Είμαι γνώστης του θέματος.

(b) Disposes a word for each meaning.

(c) Its words speak according to their contained elements (subject + root + ending, accent): γραφ – έας, γράφ – ω, γράφ – ικός, - ή, -ό.

Greek Language is very rich because:

1) It presents a productive ability; it is able to create a word for any differentiation of a meaning very easily: γραφ-έας, γραφι-ικός, γράμμα.

2) It has inherited the vocabulary of the ancient Greek Language. The Contemporary or Demotic Greek Language is a young language in age, since it was consecrated officially in 1976. However, as a follower of the ancient Greek Language, it has inherited the whole collection of the ancient Greek words as well as the syntax formations of speech, adding its own creations in order to cover needs and deficiencies, which have emerged in the meanwhile by either the impetuous rise of arts, sciences, athletism (therefore a need of naming various new goods and terms) or the substitution of foreign words (linguistic loans) imposed by the Roman and the Turkish Occupation. As a consequence, the contemporary or Demotic Greek language is much richer than any other language, even the ancient Greek Language. It is very wealthy of its large heritage, however there is an important detail in the comparison with the ancient language. For the reasons seen above, the Demotic Greek Language contains more linguistic loans. The ancient Greek Language, as a language of a people very progressive in its times, exported words and seldom imported (exported and rarely imported words).

Greek Language contains word derived not only from all over the New World but also from all over the Ancient World. The Greeks, being present and writing down continuously since very old times, registered and saved a vast quantity of words of the Antiquity. They use words (linguistic leans) of peoples who are lost (Pelasgians, Carians, Phoenicians) as well as words of peoples who once did not know writing (Slavs, Russians and others). Thus, the Greek Language is a universal linguistic treasury.
The contribution of Greek Language to other languages is not merely great, but vast; because it offered plenty of words to them thanks to its high productive ability. The word structure of the Greek language is composed by concrete linguistic elements: root or subject + ending (simple and productive) + accent, as seen above. Thus, for every meaning, concrete or abstract, visible or invisible, there is possibility of creating a separate word through a combination of these linguistic elements; a result that is multiplied by a synthesis as well as by a transfer of the accent from syllable to syllable.

See for example:

Simple words: γραφ – ή, γραφ – ικός, - ή, - ό γραφ – είον, γραφ έας,, γράφ – μα ] γράμμα, γραμμ – ατικός, -ή, γραμμ – άριο, γραμμ – ατέας, γραμμ – ή, γραμμ – ικός, -ή, - ό.

Compound words: ά – γραφ – ος, - η, - ο, συ (ν) – γγραφ – έας, από – γραφ – έας, δια – γράφω, ανα – γράφω, παρ – άγω ] παρ – άγωγος, -η, -ο, παραγωγ – ός, -ή

Accent production: παράγωγος – παραγωγός, παράγωγη – παραγωγή…

The above phenomenon is not met in other languages except Latin in a lower, however, degree.

This is mainly the reason that foreign people have recourse to the Greek or the Latin Language for word loans or make words with Greek linguistic elements like, for instance: telephone – τηλέφωνο, (τηλε + φων-ή), prototype – πρωτοτυπία (πρώτος + τύπος).

It is Noted that:

(1) The Greek language is the language in which the greatest religious of the world the religion of the Olympian Gods and the religion of the New Testament (the Christian religion) have been recorded.

(2) In the times of Alexander the Great and Christ the Greek language was the international language.

Most of the apostles: Paul, John, Luke, etc. as well as other Hebrews had obtained Greek education an the knowledge of the Greek Language and writing; the Gospels were written in Greek.

The Greek writing helped most of the ancient writing systems to be decoded. Because of the time that the Greek Language was international, many tablets then had been written in two languages; I.e. Rozetta’s pillar written in Egyptian and in Greek, the Rabad’s inscription of Alep in Greek, in Syrian an in Arabic, the Aran’s inscription of Aouran in Greek an in Arabic.

(3) The Greeks, discovering first the alphabetic writing system and obtaining the possibility to shore their experiences in a confortable and correct way, became first in arts and sciences: Homer, Hesiod, Plato, Heraclitus, Aristotle, Euripides, Aescylus, Democritos. As a result, the Greek Language became the expressive language of the human mind in the first great moments of its creation as well as the matrix of the other languages. Since the foreigners imitate the Greek writing and translate ancient Greek scientific words into their languages, the consequence is the transfer of Greek words in their languages, like in English: Xριστός (Christ), Ολυμπία (Olympia), αλφάβητο (alphabet), Γεωργία (Georgia), Ιστορία (History), Γεωγραφία (Geography).

The international Greek words are countless.





CHAPTER 5th

EDUCATIONAL







1. Difficulties of learning the Greek Language.

For many foreigners the Greek language is very difficult to learn. It is said that learning lasts over twenty – five years (“ATHENS NEWS”, July 1997, “Learn Greek in twenty-five years”) because the Greek Language:

(a) Contains a lot of endings, inclined and productive (words in – μενος, -ικός, - ινός…) therefore difficult inclinations and production, therefore time as well as mind are demanded to learn this languages.

(b) Contains a lot of long words (polysyllable); plenty of time periods are necessary to learn the pronunciation of each word.

(c) Contains three articles (English one, the “the”) and three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter) instead of two (masculine and feminine) which are the normal; therefore, they say, it is difficult to know when somebody tells i.e. «το κλαδί» and when “o κλάδος».

(d) Presents a difficult dictation in writing; they say that they have to memorize these words written with –o and those words written with –ω, these words with –ε and those words with –αι, these words with – η and those words with – ι or – υ, etc.

However, these above are somehow wrong because:

1. Although it is true that the Greek Language contains many endings, inclined and productive, meaning difficult inclination and production, however, the other languages face a similar difficulty in syntax: The difficulty in learning how words should be put in a sentence in order to derive the wishing meaning, since a word without an ending represents a general meaning which can become specific any combined with other words like in English. I.e.:

I love (pronoun + word = verb)= Greek αγαπώ,

the love (article + word = noun) = Greek αγάπη,

As well as: go on, go up, go down.

2. Although it is true that the Greek Language contains many words, innumerous words, however in a wonderful surprise they were not created by accident, but by certain endings (masculine, feminine, neuter) and concrete subjects (i.e. γραφ - > γράφ – ω, γραφ – ή, γραφ – έας, γραφ – ικός). Therefore, it is easy to learn them as well as to find their part of speech and meaning etymologically, analyzing them into their components. For – example: Νίκ – ος, Μάν – ος, Κόκκιν – ος _ masculine noun, Νίκ – η, Ανοιξ – η, εξοχ – ή = feminine noun, νικ – ώ, γράφ – ω, = verbs in active voice, νικ – ημένος, γραφ-μένος }γραμμένος = participles in passive voice, δραμ –ατ-ικός = adjectives, “he who contains a drama”, dramatic. Τhe above linguistic characteristics are not valid in other languages (except little in Latin), because the vocabulary of the other language has been created by word loans (for example, in the English vocabulary there are words from the Greek Language, the Latin Language, etc.) or indeclinable words of general meaning which are specified conceptionally depending on their position in a sentence (For example, in the Chinese Language a word can have up to a hundred meanings).

3. The Greek words, indeed, have the articles and proportionate gender endings (o Νίκ – ος and η Νίκ – η, το παιδ –ί, and η μητ – έρα and ο πατ – έρας) which are not presented in the words of other languages (The English language contains relatively a few endings an one article, “the”, for all three genders. The Chinese Language disposes neither articles nor endings but, simply, certain words for every gender). However, articles and endings are not put at the words accidentally but according to their meanings’ part of speech and gender, therefore something easy to be found out. I.e. o Νίκ – ος (masculine article and masculine ending if we mean a masculine), η Νίκ – η (feminine article and feminine ending if we mean a feminine), το παιδ – ί (neuter article and neuter ending if we mean a neuter). In other languages, instead of saying, for example, “Αντώνης και Αντωνία», we say «ο ΄Αντον και η Αντοn» changing only the article or we say “the man Αντον and the woman Aντοn”. (About cases in the Greek Language of putting masculine, feminine or neuter article – ending, see the intimate chapters).

4. The Greek writing – dictation is not succeeded by memorizing which word is written i.e. with «ω» or « ο», which word with «ι» or «η», etc. but by following respective rules such as:

the verbs are written with « ω »,

the words having cases with « ο » or « η » (plural – οι), etc.

For instance, σήκω, φοιτώ, καλώ, καλεί, καλείς……, and σύκο, φυτό, καλό, καλή, καλής…

(For more information, see “The Greek Writing System” by A. Krassanakis).

2. How to speak correct New Greek

In order to speak the Greek language correctly we have to obtain an adequate knowledge of:

1) Its vocabulary (Reading many texts of Greek authors enriches the vocabulary. A good lexicon is helpful for the unknown words.

2) Its parts of speech (See in other chapters of the present book).

3) Its formation (the endings and the inclination of the declinable words (See in other Chapters of the present book)

4) Its syntax and especially the parts of speech very well: how to familiar persons, how to speak officially, and so on. (See the books “The Greek Writing System” and “Literature Lessons” by A.Krasanakis).

5) The similarities and the differences between the Modern and the Ancient Greek Language as well as in every local dialect; which words belong to the Ancient Greek Language and which words to the Modern Greek Language; which endings belong to the Ancient Language and which endings to the Modern Greek language, etc.

(For more information see below.)

a) The Vocabulary of the Contemporary Greek Language

The Modern Greek Language (Demotic) saves or restores (reestablishes) all the ancient words of all dialects of the Greek people, whenever and wherever they have been made, although some these ancient words must be stated their new shape (ending, subject, and inclination) and according the their meaning.

Ancient Greek: Αθήναι, τάξις, αψίς, αυλός, παις – παιδίον, πόλις, πατήρ, λέω..

Modern Greek: Αθήνα, τάξη, αψίδα, αυλός, παιδί, πόλη, πατέρας, λέγω….

See: Αγαθός = “ο καλός” (= good) in ancient Greek and “ο ανόητος, ο απονήρευτος” (= foolish or artless, unsophisticated, guileless) in modern, New Greek,


b) The Differences between the Ancient and the Modern Greek Language

1. Many words of the Ancient Greek Language are not used today: αφικνούμαι (but άφιξη is used), ελαύνω (but έλευση, προσέλευση, etc are used), ιχθύς, (but ιχθυοπωλείο is used); in their place other word have been established. I.e. ψάλλω (instead of άδω), το ψάρι (instead of ο ιχθύς).

2. Some words of the Ancient Greek Language are used today having another (metaphorical) meaning. I.e. στέργω (= “I love” in Ancient Greek and “I consent” in Modern Greek), άλογο (= “middles” in Ancient Greek and “horse” in Modern Greek).

3. The Modern Greek language possesses:

a. A similar syntax structure to the syntax structure of the Ancient Greek Language (In the modern Greek a sentence is also constructed by terms (specific syntax combinations: subject, predicate, object) of which the cases are depended on the term or the part of speech they refer]; however the syntax today is more simple after the abolition of the dual, the dative case, the optative mood and the infinitive.

b. Similar phthongs to the phthongs of the ancient Greek Language, α,β,ο,ου,ι,μ,ν,λ,ρ,σ,ζ,π,β,φ,τ,δ,θ,κ,γ,χ however, the phthongical compositions of many words today have been changed for easy speaking reasons (for a more simple and easier pronunciation) or for reasons of meaning differentiation. I.e. χώρα, (place) and (x)ώρα > ώρα (time), γρά(φ)μα > γράμμα, (ε)κδύω > γδύνω, κόνις> (σ)κόνη, πυρεία > (σ)πύρ(τ)α, έλαιον > λάδι, παιδί(ον), φορείο (ν), λύσι(ς) > λύση.

c. A similar syntax construction of the words to the syntax construction of the ancient Greek Language (the words of the Modern Greek Language are constituted by the elements: subject + ending + accent, which depend on the part of speech and the type of the word. For instance, καλ – ός and - κάλ – ος, εξ – έχω > έξοχ – η and έ – ξοχ – ή) ; however, some endings in the ancient Greek Language have been abolished and some endings have been counterfeited for the simplification of the language. E x a m p l e s:

By abstracting the – s in feminine nouns: πράξ–ι(ς) > πράξ–η, λύσ– ι(ς) > λύσ–η...

By abstracting the –(o)ν in neuter nouns: παιδί(ον), φορείο(ν), κουρείο(ν)…

By adding the endings –οτητα and – αδα instead of the endings in Ancient Greek –οτης and – ας: οντότης > οντότητα, μητρότης > μητρότητα, πεδιάς > πεδιάδα, Ελλάς > Ελλάδα…

d. A similar inclination way to the inclination way of the ancient Greek Language which is the inclination of words by adding and abstracting specific endings; however, the modern Greek language has different typological endings in many words: μητρότης > μητρότητα, αγελάς > αγελάδα, πράξις > πράξη. In inclination the declined words, the vowel of the their endings usually remains the same except in the Genitive of the Plural Number: καλ–ή,ής,ή & καλ – ές,ών,ές…

Ancient Greek: η τράπεζα, τραπέζης, ο λοχίας, του λοχίου,…

Modern Greek: η τράπεζα, τράπεζας, ο λοχίας, του λοχία,…

4. The Modern Greek Language has:

(a) One cases less: there is no dative case: «τω νεανία, τοις νεανίαις, τω τιμημένω νεκρώ, τοις τιμημένοις νεκροίς».

(b) Abolished the dual in the declinable nouns: τω οφθαλμώ (the two eyes), τω πόδε, (the two feet), τω χείρε, (the two hands), τω Διοσκούρε (Castor and Pollux).

(c) One mood less: there is no optative mood: «λύοιμο, λύοις, λύσοιμι, λύσοις».

(d) Abolished the infinitive ending in –ειν (it is substituted by derivatives ending in –(η)μα): «το καπνίζειν, ομιλείν, απαγορεύεται, το καπνίζειν / ομιλείν > το κάπνισμα / μίλημα».
(e) Abolished the reduplication: (re) θωρακισμένος > θωρακισμένος, λέλυκα, ελελύκειν = έχω λύσει, είχα λύσει.

(f) Abolished the participles ending in – εις, - σας, - ων : λύθεις, λύσας, λύων except the participles ending in ων which are spoken as nouns or adjectives (they are me also ending in – οντας, ουσα):ο ενάγων (or ενάγοντας), η ενάγουσα, ο παρών, η παρούσα, ο επιλαχών, ο διευθύνων (or διευθύνοντας) σύμβουλος, η άρχουσα τάξη, η τρέχουσα τιμή, το επείγον έγγραφο.

(g) The abolished the final – ν at the end of the words, except the final – ν at the end of the articles and the personal pronouns (τον, την, των) as well as the particles of mood (δεν, μην).

(h) Made οι the feminine article αι of the plural number: οι γυναίκες, (instead of αι γυναίκαι).

(i) Substituted the reference pronouns: όστις, ήτις, ό,τι, ώσπερ, υπέρ, όπερ, with the «που» or with the: ο οποίος, η οποία, το οποίον:

_ Για πρώτη φορά έβλεπε τον άνθρωπο τον άνθρωπο με τον οποίο μιλούσε

C) The contemporary form of the Greek Words

The Modern Greek language does not present similar endings to the endings of the ancient Greek language because, for simplicity reasons, many declinated words of the ancient Greek language were differentiated according to other words. I.e. τάξις > τάξη, πράξις > πράξη became like νίκη, τιμή.

In the declinated nouns, the ancient “third inclination” was changed into a mainly “first inclination” as following:

(a) by changing the declinated ending

Ancient Form Modern Form

ο ρήτωρ, του ρήτορος.. ο ρήτορας, του ρήτορα…

ο κλητήρ του κλητήρος ο κλητήρας του κλητήρα

ο Έλλην του Έλληνος ο Έλληνας του Έλληνα

ο γνώμων του γνώμονος ο γνώμονας του γνώμονα

ο τάπης του τάπητος ο τάπητας του τάπητα

ο κόραξ του κόρακος ο κόρακας του κόρακα

ο γραφεύς του γραφέως ο γραφέας του γραφέα

ο ανδριάς, του ανδριάντος, ο ανδριάντας, του ανδριάντα

ο πατήρ του πατρός ο πατέρας του πατέρα

η μήτηρ της μητρός η μητέρα της μητέρας

η φλόξ της φλογός η φλόγα της φλόγας

η μητρότης της μητρότητος η μητρότητα της μητρότητας

η οντότης της οντότητος η οντότητα της οντότητας

η λύσις της λύσεως η λύση της λύσης

η τάξ ις της τάξεως η τάξη της τάξης

η ακτίς της ακτίνος η ακτίνα της ακτίνας

η αψίς της αψίδος η αψίδα της αψίδας

η πεδιάς της πεδιάδος η πεδιάδα της πεδιάδας

η Ελλάς της Ελλάδος η Ελλάδα της Ελλάδας

η μονάς της μονάδος η μονάδα της μονάδας

(b) By changing the gender

ο βούς του βοός το βόδι του βοδιού

ο κώνωψ του κώνωπος το κουνούπι του κουνουπιού

ο λέων του λέοντος το λιοντάρι του λιονταριού

(c) Βy changing the number

αι Αθήναι των Αθηνών η Αθήνα της Αθήνας

αι Θήβαι των Θηβών η Θήβα της Θήβας

Ancient inclination of a declianated noun

Singular Plural

Nominative η τάξ – ις αι τάξ - εις

Genitive της τάξ – εως των τάξ - εων

Dative την τάξ – η ταις τάξ - εσι

Accusative την τάξ – η τας τάξ - εις

Vocative ω τάξ – ι ω τάξ – εις

Modern inclination of declinated noun

Singular Plural

Nominative η τάξ – η οι τάξ - εις

Genitive της τάξ – ης των τάξ - εων

Accusative την τάξ – η τις τάξ - εις

Vocative τάξ- η τάξ - εις

Ancient inclination of a verb:

Uncontracted: τιμ –άω, -άεις, -άει, - άομεν, - άετε, - άουσι (ν)

Contracted: τιμ – ώ, - άς, - ά, - ώμεν, - άτε, - ώσιν

δίδ – ωμι, – ως, -οσι, – ομεν, – οτε, –όασι


Modern (new) inclination of a verb:

τιμ – ώ, - άς, - ά, - ούμε, - άτε , - ούν

δίν – ω, - εις, - ει – ουμε, - ετε, - ουν

(The uncontracted types of the verb have been abolished)

d) Duplication and Bilinguality

Bilinguality is called the mixed language the usage of words that some of which are, for instance, Greek and some are Latin or Turkish. I.e. ο χασάπης, ο μπογιατζής και ο τελάλης θα έλθουν εδώ, για να – instead of: Ο κρεοπώλης, ο ελαιοχρωματιστής και ο κήρυκας θα έλθουν εδώ, για να – The bilinguality is not allowed in a normal speech for reasons of meaning and esthetics.

There is duplication whenever a word is spoken in two or more forms with two or more different en dings of the same case (Ελλάς and Ελλάδα) for declinated nouns or the same person of verbs (λες and λέγεις). The duplication is due to a mixing of ancient and modern types as well as a mixing of types of the common Greek language with types of some local dialect. The duplication bilimguality therefore is not allowed in a normal speech. In order to avoid the duplication is necessary to learn which are the endings (productive and declinable) of the Modern Greek Language and which are the endings of the contemporary as well as the local language.

e) The Endings of the Modern Greek Language

I. Endings of Verbs

1. Radical

-ω : λύω – λύνω, πλένω πνίγω, γράφω,…

-έω-ω, αω –ω, οω-ω > – ω : καλέω – ω, δράω – ώ, δηλόω – ώ (νω)

-σσω / ττω : πλήττω, φράσσω, πράττω

-υω : μηνύω, ιδρύω

2. Productive

These verbs show what their subject is or becomes or has or provides or does the statement of the original word.

(a) Endings:- ώ, - ώνω

{Verbs derived from nouns}

κτύπος > κτυπάω – ώ, τιμή > τιμάω – ώ, αγάπη > αγαπάω,…

σημείο > σημειώνω, σημειώνομαι, θεμέλιο – θεμελιώνω, ύψος > υψώνω, θυμός > θυμώνω, κλειδί – κλειδώνω, σφήνα – σφηνώνω, πλάκα –πλακώνω

{Verbs derived from adjectives}

χαμηλός > χαμηλώνω, ψηλός > ψηλώνω, τυφλός > τυφλώνω

(b) Ending: - εύω

{Verbs derived from nouns}

σημάδι > σημαδεύω, σκοπός > σκοπεύω, γύρος > γυρεύω, όνειρο > ονειρεύομαι, δούλος > δουλεύω
{Verbs derived from adjectives}

στενός – στενεύω, δύσκολος > δυσκολεύω

(c) Endings: - ίζω, - άζω, - ιάζω

{Verbs derived from nouns}

ελπίδα > ελπίζω, μέρος > μερίζω, αφρός > αφρίζω, σκούπα / σκουπίδι – σκουπίζω, αρχή > αρχίζω, καλημέρα > καλημερίζω, σαράντα > σαρανταρίζω, κλαψούρης (κλαίω, έκλαψα) – κλαψουρίζω, πόρτα – εκπορτίζω

δόξα – δοξάζω, γειτονιά – γειτνιάζω, πλαγιά > πλαγιάζω…

{Verbs derived from adjectives or adverbs}

συχνός, συχνά > συχνάζω, αντίκρυ – αντικρίζω,

όμοιος < ομοιάζω, άδειος > αδειάζω

(d) Endings: - αίνω, - υνω

{Verbs derived from nouns}

ρύπος > ρυπαίνω, ανάσα > ανασαίνω.

{Verbs derived from adjectives}

πράος – πραΰνω, φαιδρός – φαιδρύνω, λαμπρός > λαμπρύνω, οξύς > οξύνω, βραδύνω, δι –ευθύνω, βαθύνω…

μακρύς > μακρύνω ή μακραίνω, βαρύς > βαρύνω or βαραίνω, φαρδύς > φαρδαίνω or φαρδύνω…..

ακριβός – ακριβαίνω, ζεστός > ζεσταίνω, θερμός > θερμαίνω…

II. Endings of Nouns

A. Neuter

1. Radical endings, it meanings names:

-ι: μαλλί, σπαθί, τυρί, ψωμί…

-ας: τέρας, κέρας > κέρατο, πέρας, κρέας…

-ος: μέρος, θέρος, βέλος, τέλος, κράνος…

-ως: φάος –φως, καθεστώς (Contracted)

2. Endings derived from verbs, showing:

a) The result or the consequence (product) of the action:

-(μ) μα (From verbs endings in – ω) : γράφω > γράμμα, κλάμα ,

-τάμα

-εμα (- εύω): κλαδεύω > κλάδεμα, κουρεύω > κούρεμα, γιάτρεμα….

-ωμα (- ώνω): φορτώνω > φόρτωμα, ισιώνω > ίσιωμα, σημείωμα…
-ημα (- ώ): κινώ > κίνημα, μιλώ > μίλημα, πατώ > πάτημα…

-ημα (-αίνω): μαθαίνω > μάθημα, παθαίνω > πάθημα…

-υμα (- ύω): μηνύω > μήνυμα, λύω > λύμα, καταλύω > κατάλυμα…

-σιμο (- ψιμο – ξιμο): στρώνω > στρώσιμο, χάσιμο, ψήσιμο, τρέχω > τρέξιμο, σκάψιμο…

-ητό: βογγώ >βογκητό, παραμιλητό, ξεφωνητό, ροχαλητό, αγκομαχητό..

-ίδι: στολίζω > στολίδι, σκουπίζω > σκουπίδι,…

b) The institution or the bench of the action (service)

-τήριο, - τρο: εκπαιδεύω > εκπαιδευτής - εκπαιδευτήριο, γυμναστήριο, δικαστήριο, θεάομαι / θεατής } θέατρο, κάνιστρο, άγκιστρο

c) The tool of the action

-τήρι : κλαδεύω } κλαδευτήρι, ξυπνητήρι, ψαλτήρι, σκαλιστήρι…

3. Endings of nouns derived from other nouns – showing:

(a) Τhe institution or the bench of the action (service) :

-είο (accented ending) = simple institutions: κουρέας > κουρείο, ιατρείο, γραφείο, Δασαρχείο…

-ειο (Unaccented ending) = benevolent institutions: Ζάππας – Ζάππειο, Αβερώφειο

-άδικο: ράφτης – ραφτάδικο (instead of : ραφείο ), γαλατάδικο, ψαράδικο…

-ιο: εστιάτορας – εστιατόριο, φύλακας – φυλάκιο…

-αριό : πλύστρα – πλυσταριό , σκουπιδαριό, καμπαναριό…

(b) The multitude (collective):

-λό (γ) ι : άρχοντας – αρχοντολόι, συγγενολόι..

(c) The tiny or the caressing designation (diminutive):

-ούδι : άγγελος > αγγελούδι

-ούλι : σάκος – σακούλι, κρυφτό – κρυφτούλι

-άκι, α(ρ)άκι, -(ουδ)άκι : αρνί – αρνάκι, ψαράκι, φυλλαράκι, αγγελ(ουδ)άκι…

-άρι (ον) : κριός – κριάρι, πάγκος – παγκάρι, γραμμάριο..

-άκι (ον) : δρόμος – δρομάκι, παιδί – παιδάκι..

-ίδιο : κράτος – κρατίδιο, σφαίρα – σφαιρίδιο…

(d) The section

-ι(ον): αέρας – αέριο, όρος – όριο, κλάδος – κλαδί, σκάλα – σκαλί, σκαμνί..

B. Masculine

1. Endings derived from verbs:
a) The acting person.

They are analyzed into “he, she, it who, which + verb in the third person of the Present”

-της: ψάλω > ψάλτης, ράβω > ράφτης, κόφτης, ναύτης…

-της: κρίνω > κριτής, ανακριτής, υποκινητής…

-ευτής: πρα(γ)ματεύω > πραματευτής, χορευτής…

-ητής: μαθαίνω > μαθητής, ποιώ > ποιητής, τηλεφωνάω –τηλεφωνητής, απαιτητής, καταπατητής, εκδικητής…

-ήτης (- ώ): κυβερνώ > κυβερνήτης, πλανήτης…

-ωτής (- ώνω): διορθώνω > διορθωτής, θεμελιωτής, λυτρωτής…

-ιστής (- ίζω, - ω): θερίζω > θεριστής, δικαστής, τραγουδιστής…

-υ (ν) της : διευθύνω > διευθυντής, ιδρύω > ιδρυτής ,μηνυτής…

-ντής : λιπαίνω > λιπαντής, υφαίνω > υφαντής…

-έας, - ιάς: κουρεύω > κουρέας, ιππέας, γραμματέας, διανομέας γραφέας (γραφιάς), σκαφέας - σκαφτιάς…

-ήρας: καλώ > κλητήρας , κρατώ > κρατήρας…

-(ά)τορας : συμβουλεύω > συμβουλάτορας, εισπράττω – εισπράκτορας, διδάκτορας…

b) The medium or the tool of the action

They are analyzed into “he, she, it who, which + verb in the Present”

-ος: τρέχω > τροχός, τρέφω > τροφός, πέμπω > πομπός..

-τήρας, - τήρα: κλαδεύω > κλαδευτήρι or κλαδευτήρας, κινητήρας, καταβρεχτήρας…

c) The place of the action;

It is analyzed into “there where + verb in the Present”

-τήριο: εκπαιδεύω – εκπαιδευτήριο, γυμναστήριο, δικαστήριο,…

d) The result of the action

They are analyzed into “it which + verb in the Aorist (= past tense) or the Perfect Tense”

-ος: λέγω > λόγος, φέρω > φόρος, τρέμω > τρόμος, κατέχω > κάτοχος…

-μός: πνίγω > πνιγμός, κραδαίνω > κραδασμός, χάνω > χαμός, διωγμός, παλμός…

-ωμός (- ώνω): λυτρώνω – λυτρωμός

2. Endings derived from nouns, showing:

a. Ideology or Behavior

-ισμός : Χριστιανός > Χριστιανισμός, Έλληνας > Ελληνισμός, άνθρωπος > ανθρωπισμός, εγώ – εγωισμός, αθλητισμός…
b. The follower of an Ideology or Behavior

-ιστής : Βούδας > βουδιστής, ελληνιστής, ανθρωπιστής, εγωιστής…

c. The caressing diminutive characterization

-άκης : κόσμος > κοσμάκης, Γιώργος > Γιωργάκης…

-άκος : δρόμος > δρομάκος, γεροντάκος…

-ούλης : παππούς > παππούλης, αδελφούλης, Θάνος > Θανούλης

-ισκος : σατράπης > σατραπίσκος, θαλαμίσκος, κολπίσκος..

d. Content (concentrated)

-(ι)ώνας : άχερα > αχερώνας, ελαιώνας, περιστερώνας, καλαμιώνας

-ιάς : πεύκο > πευκιάς, πλατανιάς…

e. The vacationer or the operator

-άς: ψάρια – ψαράς, γάλα – γαλατάς, σίδερα – σιδεράς…

-άριος : αποθήκη – αποθηκάριος , βιβλιοθήκη – βιβλιοθηκάριος…

-τζής : κουλούρια – κουλουρτζής, παλιατζής, ταξιτζής…

-ίας : εισόδημα – εισοδηματίας , κτήματος – κτηματίας…

-(ι) άρης : λύρα > λυράρης , βάρκα > βαρκάρης , σκουπιδιάρης..

C. Masculine & féminine

a. Magna, large:

- αρα, - αρού: φέτα > φετάρα, κοιλιά > κοιλάρα, χορεύτρια, χορευταρού…

- αρος, - αράς : παιδί > παίδαρος, παιδαράς, κοιλαρά, χορευταράς

b. Native:

-ος , - ίδα: Γαλλία > Γάλλος , Γαλλίδα, Ιταλία > Ιταλός, Ιταλίδα,..

-ίτης, -ίτισσα: Αράχοβα > Αραχωβίτης, Πολίτης, Πολίτης, Ανατολίτης..

- αϊτης, - ίτισσα : Μοριάς > Μοραΐτης, Μοραϊτισσα, Χρυσαϊτης…

- ιάτης,,σσα : Μάνη > Μανιάτης, Μανιάτισσα,…

-(ι)ώτης,σσα: Ηπειρώτης, Σουλιώτης, Γιαννιώτης, Γιαννιώτισσα

-ι(α)νός,ή,ανός,α: Ζακυνθινός,ή, Αφρικανός,ή, Αμερικάνος,α…

-ιός, ιά,ιος,ια :Θεσσαλονικιός, -ιά, Αιγύπτιος, Λημνιός, Μυτιληνιός,

- ιά- αίος, - αία : Αθήνα > Αθηναίος,α, Θηβαίος, Κερκυραίος,a..

- έζος,α : Βιέννη > Βιεννέζος, Κινέζος, Κινέζα, Μαλτέζος, Δανέζα

c. Surnames:

- ίδης,η (Pontus) : μέλισσα > Μελισσίδης, Κωνσταντινίδης , Κρονίδης

-άκης,η (Crete) :Κυριάκος > Κυριακάκης, Κυριακάκη, Κασάπης > Κασαπάκης…

-άκος,ου, -όγκονας,α (Sparta – Mani): Πέτρος > Πετράκος, Δημακάκου, Δημαρόγκονας….

-όπουλος,ου (Peloponnese – Morias): Μανώλης > Μανωλόπουλος, Δημόπουλος, Δημοπούλου…

d. Being in relationship:

-ώτης, - ώτισσα: θίασος > θιασώτης, στρατός > στρατιώτης, πατρίς > πατριώτης, πατριώτισσα …

-ίτης, - ίτισσσα : τέχνη > τεχνίτης,, μεσίτης, τραπεζίτης, πολίτης,…

D. Feminine

1. Endings derived from verbs, showing:

a) The action or the situation

From the Present of the Active Voice:

- η: γράφω > γραφή, τέμνω > τομή, νέμω > νομή, μετέχω > μετοχή, εξέχω > εξοχή…

- α : φέρω > φορά, φόρα, ανασαίνω – ανάσα, παστρεύω, - πάστρα

- εία (- εύω): λατρεύω > λατρεία, πορεύομαι – πορεία, θεραπεία, βασιλεία, δουλεία

- ειά (- εύω): δουλεύω > δουλειά, γιατρεύω > γιατρειά

- εια (- ώ): βοηθώ > βοήθεια, προσπαθώ > προσπάθεια, ωφέλεια

- ία (- ώ): (ο)μιλώ > ομιλία – μιλιά, βαθμολογώ- βαθμολογία…

From the Aorist (paste tense) of the Active Voice:

-ση, ξη, ψη: λάμψη (λάμπω), βράση, φύλαξη, τάξη, σκέψη

-ωση (- ώνω): βεβαιώνω > βεβαίωση, δικαίωση, δήλωση

-ηση (- ώ): κυβερνάω > κυβέρνηση, γέννηση, κίνηση

-ιση (- ίζω): διαφημίζω > διαφήμιση

-υση (- ύω): λύ (ν) ω > λύση, φύω > φύση, μήνυση, ίδρυση

-οιση: αθρόω > άθροιση

b) The tool of action

-ίδα : γράφω – γραφίδα, λαμβάνω – λαβίδα..

-άλα : κρεμώ – κρεμάλα, φουσκώνω – φουσκάλα..

2. Endings derived from adjectives, showing the quality or the peculiarity:

-ία (accented, from adjectives ending in – ος) : κακός > κακία, φίλος >φιλία, σοφός > σοφία

-α, -η (with alteration of accent) : αλμυρά – αλμύρα, γλυκά – γλύκα, ζεστή – ζέστη, θερμή – θέρμη…

-αδα : σκληρός > σκληράδα, νοστιμάδα, αγριάδα, μονός > μονάδα…

-ίλα : πικρός – πικρίλα, άσπρος – ασπρίλα, ξινός – ξινίλα…

-οσύνη : δίκαιος > δικαιοσύνη, καλοσύνη, αγιοσύνη…

-ότητα : αθώος > αθωότητα, ορθότητα, βεβαιότητα…

-ύτητα : γλυκύς > γλυκύτητα, οξύς – οξύτητα, βαρύς – βαρύτητα, ταχύς – ταχύτητα..

& Endings derived from nouns:

-ότητα : εχθρός > εχθρότητα, μητρότητα, ποσότητα,…

3. Endings derived from other nouns, showing:

(a) The feminine of a masculine noun (or a masculine name):

-αινα : Γιώργης – Γιώργαινα, Τζαβέλας – Τζαβέλαινα, δράκος – δράκαινα, λέων – λέαινα, λύκος – λύκαινα…

(b) The caressing diminutive characterization:

-ίτσα : Ελένη – Ελενίτσα, γάτα – γατίτσα, κλωστίτσα,,,

-ούδα,-ούλα: πλέξη – πλεξούδα, βρύση – βρυσούλα, μητερούλα, κορούλα…

(c) Content (Concentrated)

-ουριά : κλέφτης > κλεφτουριά, λάσπη > λασπουριά, κουμπουριά…

-ιά : πλατάνια > πλατανιά, καλαμιά, αμμουδιά…

-ωνιά : χειμώνας > χειμωνιά, γειτονιά, συννεφιά, καλοκαιριά…

(d) Plant

-ιά : αμύγδαλο - αμυγδαλιά, κεράσια – κερασιά, αχλαδιά

III. Endings of Adjectives

1. Endings derived from Roots,

(In various meanings: character, color)

-ος,η,ο : καλός, σωστός, άσπρος, μαύρος…

2. Endings derived from nouns

They are analyzed in preposition + nouns: πέτρινος = από πέτρα, εμπύρετος = με πυρετό, μηνιαίος = κατά μήνα, or in the phrase « που είναι από / σαν + noun: ξύλινος = που είναι από ξύλο); showing:

a. Original material or source

-ένιος: ασήμι > ασημένιος, σταρένιος, μπακιρένιος, μολυβένιος…

-ινος : μαλλί > μάλλινος, ξύλο > ξύλινος, πέτρα > πέτρινος…

-ίσιος,α,ο: αρνί > αρνίσιος, φιδίσιος, βαρελίσιος, βουνίσιος, παλικαρίσιος…

b. Color

-ής, - ιά, ί : μέλι > μελής, σταχτής, ασημής, βυσσινής

-ινός, η, ο : πράσο (πράσο) > πράσινος, κίτρο (κίτριον) > κίτρινος..

c. Content

-άτος : αφρός > αφράτος, μελάτος, κρασάτος, δροσάτος..

d. Repletion (abundance)

-εινός : σκότος > σκοτεινός, φωτεινός, ορεινός, υγιεινός…

-ηρός : τόλμη > τολμηρός, λυπηρός, οδυνηρός, νοσηρός, μοχθηρός…

-ιερός : δροσιά > δροσερός, φθονερός, σκιερός, φλογερός

-ώβδης,η,ες: ευωδιά > ευώδης, μυώδης, θορυβώδης, κτηνώδης…

-ηλός : απάτη > απατηλός, υψηλός, σφριγηλός,…

e. Dimension, weight, and size (width, length)

-ύς, ιά, ύ : φάρδος > φαρδύς, βαρύς, πλατύς, μακρύς,..

f. Appearance or condition

-ίστικος : αγόρι > αγορίστικος, κορίτσι > κοριτσίστικος…

-ωπός : χαρά > χαρωπός, σκυθρωπός…

-ωτός : αγκάθι > αγκαθωτός, μετάξι > μεταξωτός…

-(ι) άρης : πείσμα > πεισματάρης, κόκαλο > κοκαλιάρης…

-λέος : δίψα > διψαλέος, πειναλέος

-ηλός, - ωλός : σιωπή > σιωπηλός, απατηλός, αμαρτωλός, φειδωλός…

-ερός : βροχή > βροχερός, φλόγα > φλογερός, δροσερός…

-ιος,α,ο: τιμή > τίμιος, λόγιος, άθλιος, αιώνιος, μαραθώνιος, πλούσιος

-είος : άντρας > αντρείος, γυναίκα > γυναικείος…

g. Time or period

-άτικος : Μάιος > Μαγιάτικος, κυριακάτικος, χειμωνιάτικος…

-ιαίος, - ήσιος : μήνας > μηνιαίος, ημερήσιος, ετήσιος…

-ινός : φθινόπωρο > φθινοπωρινός, θερινός , καλοκαιρινός,…

h. Place or country

-ικός : Γαλλία, Γάλλος > γαλλικός, θεσσαλικός, κρητικός, χωρικός…

-ικος : Σούλι, Σουλιώτης > σουλιώτικος, ρουμελιώτικος…

-αιος,α : Θήβα > Θηβαίος , Κερκυραίος,α…

-ιακός : ήλιος > ηλιακός, σελήνη > σεληνιακός…

-κός,ή, ό : καρδιά > καρδιακός, οικογενειακός, ή….

-ικος : γέρος > γέρικος, κλέφτικος, γύφτικος…

3. Endings derived from verbs

They are analyzed in “he, she, who, it which + verb in the third person; showing:

a) He who provides or contains what the verb states:

-τός (a’ conjugation): γράφω > γραφτός, σφικτός, σβηστός, ακουστός, σβηστός, ανοιχτός

-ητός (β’ conjugation): ξυπνώ > ξυπνητός, κρατώ > ακράτητος, αγαπητός, ποθητός

-ωτός (from verb in –ώνω): καμαρώνω > καμαρωτός, αυλακωτός, απλωτός

-ητικός, -ιστικός, -ετικός: ενοχλώ > ενοχλητικός, δροσίζω – δροσιστικός, παραπονιέμαι > παραπονετικός, ενεργώ > ενεργητικός…

-ερός : θλιβω > θλιβερός, λάμπω > λαμπερός…

-κός : καρτερώ > καρτερικός, πειθαρχώ > πειθαρχικός…

-(η) τήριος : κινώ > κινητήριος, σώζω > σωτήριος….

-νος : σέβομαι > σεβνός > σεμνός, τέρπω > τερπνός….

b) What must be done stated the verb:

-ετέος: αφαιρώ > αφαιρετέος, διαιρετέος, μειώνω – μειωτέος, προσθετέος,..

c) He who is able to become what a the verb states:

-σιμος : κατοικώ > κατοικήσιμος, φα(γ)ώνομαι > φαγώσιμος…

4. Endings derived from other adjective:

a. Caressing diminutive:

-ούλης : άσπρος > ασπρούλης, κοντός > κοντούλης..

-ούτσικος : ζεστός > ζεστούτσικος , μικρούτσικος , καλούτσικος,..

b. Appearance:

-ωπός : άγριος > αγριωπός , κοκκινωπός , πρασινωπός…

-ιδερός : μαύρος > μαυριδερός , ασπριδερός…

-ουλός : βαθύς > βαθουλός , παχουλός , μακρουλός…

5. Endings derived from adverbs.

They are analyzed in “he, she, who, it which is + adverb; showing place or time:
-ινός, - ινή, - ινό: χθες > χθεσινός, κοντά > κοντινός, μακρινός, σημερινός, φετινός, πύρινος

-ιανός: παρακάτω > παρακατιανός , αύριο > αυριανός

IV. Endings of Adverbs

The adverbs are derived from some adjectives, pronouns, participles and adverbs having the endings:

-ως, - α: καλός > καλώς , καλά , διαρκής > διαρκώς , επόμενος > επομένως…

-ού: άλλος > αλλού , αυτός > αυτού

-θέ: εδώ > εδώθε , εκεί > εκείθε , ολούθε , αλλούθε

Normally the adverbs are derived:

1) From the nominative case of the Singular Number of masculine adjectives and participles by abstracting the article and removing the accent one syllable downwards if they accented on the antepenult (the adverbs are written with -ω <omega> to be distinguished): ο καλός (adjective) > καλώς (adverb), ο βόρειος (adjective) > βορείως (adverb) , ο επόμενος (participle) > επομένως (adverb). Similarly: υπογείως, κακώς, αεροπορικώς, ομολογουμένως, προηγουμένως, δικαιολογημένα / -ως, ηθελημένα.

2) From the nominative case of the Plural Number of neuter adjectives by removing only the article: τα καλά (adjective) > καλά (adverb). Similarly: βόρεια, ετήσια, καλύτερα, βορειότερα, άριστα.

3) From the substitution of the ending – ως in adjectives ending in – ης: ο δυστυχής (δύστυχος), - η, - ο + adjective) > δυστυχώς ( = adverb) Similarly: ευτυχώς , διαρκώς , διακαώς , συνεχώς , σαφώς.

4) From prepositions or from other adverbs: εν > εντός , εν + αντί > έναντι, εκ > εκτός, εξ > έξω , επί + άνω > απάνω, κατά>κάτω , ανά +μετά +εξ > αναμεταξύ , χωρίς > χώρια, εν ώρα > (ε) νωρίς , επί + έτος > εφέτος – φέτος , αντί + άκρη > αντίκρυ, όλη νύκτα > οληνυκτίς , απόβραδο > αποβραδίς , κοντολογίς

5) From the indirect cases (of the ancient Greek Language) : του χρόνου, τα (η) + ώρα > τώρα , τη ημέρα > τήμερα + σήμερα , εξ ίσου > εξίσου, επί ίσης > επίσης…




B I B L I O G R A P H Y



The present book is an original study about the Greek language and not a copy of other works except that section concerning the parts of speech and the inclination of the words which is according to the Grammar by M. Triantaphillidis and the instructions by the Ministry of Education.

This work is a continuation of:

1. General Glossology, A. KRASSANAKIS

2. Introduction in Philosophy A. KRASSANAKIS

3. The Greek writing system, A. KRASSANAKIS

4. Syntax of Ancient and New Greek, A. KRASSANAKIS

5. Lessons of Scientific Glossology, A. KRASSANAKIS

6. Lessons of Greek Literature, A. KRASSANAKIS

7. The universal Writing, A. KRASSANAKIS

8. Lies and Disgraces about the Greek Language and Writing A. KRASSANAKIS



There was a great contribution by the following writings:

1. Great Lexicon of Grammar by N. Sifakis

2. History of Ancient Greek Literature by E. D. Dhemopoulos

3. Grammar of the Ancient Greek Language by A.Djardjanos

4. Grammar of the New Greek language by G. Papanastasiou





HAVE FUN !!!

Great post Kinmid!!!! Keep up the good work.

-"Είμαστε Έλληνες!Ακόμη και αν τα τανκς των Τούρκων περάσουν από πάνω μας εμείς θα μείνουμε εδώ."Και έμειναν.....
Λογαχός Σωτήρης Σταυριανάκος
Στρατόπεδο Ελδύκ 1974

yes very nice but I prefer the Latin.Its more easy to me.
But this is a modern Greek the old is very different from alpha to omκga letters not these news you show if I am not wrong,if I am please correct me.

Greek language is the most easiest and perfect in the world.


Such as ignorant and retarded statement.

Most easiest?

anyways Greek language sounds like a bunch of gay aliens trying to defy the vocals in our speech by mixing vowels everywhere


XAI XAI XAI AOUEI KNIAXUO, IDIOTIC LANGUAGE

Gozlerim Turkiye icin yaniyorlar

This is the history forum mate...
Feel free to share your intelectual wisdom to the flamers forum, where it will most wonderfully blend in, and equally be appreciated by other similarly highly inteligent species.
Don't post in here again, since obviously we are not worthy of such intelectual superior being like yourself.


HAVE FUN !!!

we are not worthy of such intelectual superior being like yourself.


Here is something sophisticated for u:

kiram to dahaneto ke sakitshi.

Gozlerim Turkiye icin yaniyorlar

Thank you all mighty wise creature!

Now go to the place you really belong and gracefully end wasting your time with us unworthy ones...

http://www.network54.com/Forum/276153/



HAVE FUN !!!

the only gay is you, you 120 pound pimple face virgin. i don't blame you for sending back only insults instead of debating things intellectually and like a man because u are a young twat.

you 120 pound pimple face virgin.


who said i was a virgin? and when is the last time u seen a persian with pimples? ...um never. now shut up u old fart

Gozlerim Turkiye icin yaniyorlar

Don't ruin this thread please...
If instead you keep it up and manage to do so, then I will have to create a new one, and copy-paste the worthy posts from this one to the new.
Moderators please do something to protect this topic...


HAVE FUN !!!

when is the last time i saw persians with pimples hahahaha
here is the link in case u want to do something about your zits virgin.





Actavis First to Market with Isotretinoin in UAE & Iran
Actavis has launched its Isotretinoin under the brand name DECUTAN into the United Arab Emirates and Iran. Decutan is currently the only generic isotretinoin available in both markets.


Decutan is a prescription drug and is indicated for the treatment of severe acne, which does not respond to other treatments. It contains the active substance isotretinoin, which belongs to the group of drugs called retinoids, which are structurally related to vitamin A. It reduces the activity of sebaceous glands, which produce fat in the skin.


Decutan was launched to Dermatologists in Abu Dhabi and Dubai at the end of January. Both events were well attended by leading dermatologists as well as high profile members from the Ministry of Health, who were also interested to listen to a presentation made by Dr. Joseph Pace, a leading Maltese dermatologist, entitled “Management of Acne – Past, Present & Future”.


The launch of Decutan marks the entry of Actavis onto the Middle East markets. The company has also launched Ciprofloxacine and Cetirizine and has a number of products currently under registration. Following the acquisition of Alpharma in December 2005, the Actavis portfolio in the Middle East is set to increase to over ten products by the end of 2006.

here is the link in case u want to do something about your ugly face

http://www.actavis.com/MediaCenter/News/First2MarketWithIsotretinoinInUAEAndIran.htm

arash wich is Turkish for Anal i suppose, don't you have anything better to do then to ruin this thread out of nowhere?


Like go clean some toilets or something










-----------------------------------------
My Hellas includes Turkey



* Under loan from Romulus007

Turks should talk with the ugliest, vowel lacking language in the world. Chulugukuluk akbat ugluglug kulugu! They sound like orcs in the Lord of the Rings....or Klingons perhaps.

Nice post Kinmid.
Congrats!
I just wish it would b easier for someone to understand ancient greek.
The essence of all sciences is hidden in there..
Cheers



----- SUPPORT LEBANON -----
SHAME ON THE ISRAELI CRIMINAL ARMY!

Can those fluent in modern Greek easily read and understand Classical Greek?

"Who are the rulers of the lands beyond Guraiz and Burzil? The Darada Rajas."
The Rajatarangini

Modern Greek are actually the same language, but with a small barrier of syntax differences and simplifications, mainly due to our current educational system focussing on other stuff.
So it requires a certain level of familiarization in order to overcome the initial difficulties 100%. The Alphabet, grammar, and words are all the same, but in many cases moder Greek use the words in a similar or opposite meaning. We also use alot less words in our daily lives than we used in the past, so some words might seem unknown or even strange at first glance, but this is easily overcome, since the meaning is inherent into the words themselves. We also use complex words today that are made of 2-3 ancient words we don't use nowadays.
For example we say "I was Speachless"="Έμεινα άναυδος", where the "άναυδος"="speechless" word is actually made from "αν" meaning "without", and "αυδή" meaning "voice". We don't use the second today, but we use the synthesis.
An other example is the word "Προσκυνώ"="Bow or kneel in order to kiss", which is made of "προς" and "κυνώ". The first means "towards" or "in the direction of", and the second means "kiss" in Homeric greek. We don't use the word "κυνώ" for kiss nowadays, but we use the synthesis.
Other cases involve the characteristic of an object, which today is used in order to describe the object instead of it's real name used in ancient times.
An example: "Οψάριον Ιχθύς" where the first describes an attribute of the second which means fish.
Today we use the first as "Ψάρι", when we want to say fish.
Anyway...
It all takes a few hours of going over the basic grammatical and syntax rules of the Ancient Greek, and you can easily comprehend a classical script. The rest comes natural. If you want to endeavour in more ancient and archaic scripts, such as the Homeric, then you need a bit more familiarization, but it is not an impossible task.
I've been studying ancient Greek scripts and books from 1997, and I have managed within the first two years to actually reach a level where I can easily read Iliad from the original text in the Homeric language type. From a point on, it actually reminded me the Aegean islands dialects used today.


HAVE FUN !!!

Turks should talk with the ugliest, vowel lacking language in the world. Chulugukuluk akbat ugluglug kulugu! They sound like orcs in the Lord of the Rings....or Klingons perhaps.
ROFLMAO...that was funny...still better than your nasalized "klakiliki priliakis analastirikis terilipisistimalakamou" though...if we're the Klingons you're certainly the Romulans, and heck, they're sooooo gay.

Interesting read btw.

bump for easy find...


HAVE FUN !!!