Dear Peppers,
I've been working on breathing and putting more or less for about ten years. The connection with eastern mind-body techniques is crystal clear, including yoga, zen, and the martial arts.
This is a pretty complex area, naturally, since the relationship between the human breath and states of consciousness has been a subject of intense study for millenia. The current fascination is between the neurophysiology of breathing and the cardiovascular system on the one hand and states of mind, emotion, and spirit on the other.
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Eastern meditative practices use various breathing patterns, including deep abdomenal breathing. These are my basic texts about the breath, from an eastern perspective:
Science of Breath: A Practical Guide, by Swami Rama, Rudolph Ballentine MD, and Alan Hymes, MD (Himalayan Inst., Honesdale PA, 1979)
Breath by Breath: The Liberating Practice of Insight Meditation, by Larry Rosenberg (Shambala, Boston, 1999)
Beyond the Breath: Extraordinary Mindfulness through Whole-Body Vipassana Meditation, by Marshall Glickman (Journey Editions, Boston, 2002)
Breath, Sleep, the Heart and Life: The Revolutionary Health Yoga, by Pundit Acharya (Dawn Horse Press, Clearlake Highlands CA, 1975)
The Art of Breathing: Six Simple Lessons to Improve Performance, Health and Well-Being, by Nancy Zi (Vivi Company, Glendale CA, 1997)
Breathe! You are Alive: Sutra of the Full Awareness of Breathing, by Thich Nhat Hanh (Paralax Press, Berkeley CA, 1996)
Breathing: Expanding Your Power and Energy, by Michael Sky (Bear and Co., Santa Fe NM, 1990)
The Breathing Book: Good Health and Vitality through Essential Breath Work, by Donna Fahri (Henry Holt and Co., New York NY, 1996).
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From the western perspective, breathing is studied for its "relaxation" effects and for stress control (sort of a limited interest, really). The central works are those of Dr Herbert Benson of Harvard Medical School:
The Relaxation Response, by Herbert Benson, MD (William Morrow, New York NY, 1975)
The Mind / Body Effect, by Herbert Benson, MD (Simon and Schuster, New York NY, 1979)
Beyond the Relaxation Response, by Herbert Benson, MD (Times Books, New York NY, 1984)
Handbook of Stress: Theoretical and Clinical Aspects, 2nd ed., edited by Leo Goldberg and Shlomo Breznitz (Macmillan, New York NY, 1993).
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The straight neurophysiology of breathing is actually fascinating. The brain centers that control the depth and rhythm of breathing are buried deep in the brain stem in the pons and medulla, along with the centers controlling heart rate. In "quiet" or passive breathing, the basic cycle of inspiration for 2 seconds is followed by exhalation over 3 seconds. In the space of a minute, that is 12 breaths, versus a pretty normal heart rate of 72. So there are around 6 heart beats pumping blood for every replenishing of the lungs' oxygen supply. A German study found that a breathing rate of 15-20 times a minute with a heart rate of 60-80 beats a minute indicates that a ratio of 4 to 1 is a sign of health. Another study found that humans alternate breathing through one nostril for an average cycle of 3 hours, and then switching to the other nostril -- a fact long-ago observed by yogic masters.
Biological Rhythms in Human and Animal Physiology, by Gay Gaer Luce (Dover Publications, New York NY, 1971).
The depth and rhythm of breathing is influenced pretty heavily by metabolic and chemical changes in the body, including elevated temperature, decreased temperature, CNS stimulation, CNS depression, mechanoreceptor reflexes (abdominal stretch reflexes), chemoreceptor reflexes (especially the carbon dioxide level in the blood), and protective reflexes to toxic vapors and irritants (coughing and sneezing, temporary apnea). Of course, emotional and autonomic influences greatly affect breathing depth and pace as well.
Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology, by Frederic Martini (Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs NJ, 1989)
The respiratory control centers affect heart rate and blood pressure as well, and the muscle action of the chest in breathing in and out also affects heart output and blood pressure. Traube-Hering waves are signals that affect blood pressure emanating from the breath centers. The vagus nerve is the main nerve for the heart, and this vagal activity is modified by the breath centers also. During inspiration, vagal activity declines and during expiration tone increases. In early inspiration, aortic blood pressure is reduced, and by mid-expiration the aortic blood pressure peaks. The heart rate slows in reflex to increased aortic pressure. All together, the normal response of heart rate to breathing is that the heart rate goes up a little during inspiration and then slows during late inspiration and early expiration.
Best and Taylor's Physiological Basis of Medical Practice, 12th ed., ed. by John B. West, MD (Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore MD, 1990).
The level of carbon dioxide in the blood builds up as the cardiopulmonary cycle brings pulmonary CO2 back from the body, between one expiration and the next inspiration. This CO2 enters the brain and mixes with cerebrospinal fluid to create carbonic acid. The hydrogen ions of this process cause the brain stem to signal increased respiration, specifically inspiration.
Textbook of Medical Physiology, 3rd ed., by Arthur C. Guyton (Saunders, New York NY, 1966)
Pharmacology and Physiology in Anesthetic Practice, 2nd ed., by Robert Stoelting (JP Lippincott, Philadelphia PA, 1991).
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There are many studies relating eastern meditative practices with breathing and heart rate, showing that meditation calms breathing and heart rate.
Zen Meditation and Psychotherapy, by Tomio Hirai, MD (Japan Publications, Tokyo, 1989)
Psychological Studies on Zen, by Y. Akishige (Komazawa University Press, Tokyo, 1977)
The Future of the Body: Explorations into the Further Evolution of Human Nature, by Michael Murphy (Putnam Publishing Co., New York NY, 1992)
RK Wallace and Herbert Benson,
The physiology of meditation, Scientific American, 226:84-90 (1972).
Perhaps the most interesting book relating breathing and states of consciousness is
Zen and the Brain, by James Austin, MD (MIT Press, Cambridge MA, 1998).
This is a phenomenal coverage of the relation between zen meditative practices and western-style neurophysiological science, writtenn by a neuroscientist who is also a practicing zen meditator. His survey of this subject of breathing practices found that experienced meditators can slow the breathing rate down to 4 to 6 breaths per minutes (one-third to one-half normal), and that during zazen the proportionate time normally spent in inspiration versus expiration (43% to 57%) fell to as low as 25% for inspiration with a prolonged expiration. Austin said that "tenderness" is the feeling or emotion associated with the pause at the end of the expiration phase. Tension promotes "chest breathing," whereas relaxation promotes "abdomenal breathing," and it seems the reverse is also true. He concludes that quiet breathing with prolonged expiration also dampens brain activity and probably promotes clarity in states of consciousness.
The upshot of Austin's book is that the breathing pattern is critical to the meditative state, and probably promotes it through the neurochemistry that comes about associated with respiration. This is quite a bit more complex than simple blood gases exchange, but comprehends the complexities and interrelations of the autonomic and central nervous system, the endocrine system, the cardiopulmonary system, and the whole of human behavior and neurophysiological functioning.
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In sports psychology, especially golf psychology, and more especially putting psychology, the art of breathing is a newborn art. The Europeans, frankly, are well ahead of the PGA Tour Americans in incorporating yogic and other practices in golf, including breath control. Generally speaking, western sports psychology is not more advanced than "abdominal breathing" for stress control, which is just one small piece borrowed by western scientists from a fuller array of eastern practices in the control of prana, Qi, ki, ch'i, or kai - the vital spirit.
See for example:
Mind Mastery for Winning Golf: Using Your Head to Reach Par and to Enjoy Playing, by Robert Rotella and Linda K. Bunker (Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs NJ, 1981) [discussing "deep breathing" as a calming technique, without detailing how to perform abdomenal breathing, and making the point that holding the breath during the full shot robs the golfer of relaxation-induced greater distance]
The New Golf Mind, by Gary Wiren and Richard Coop (Simon and Schuster, new York NY, 1978) [mentioning that taking a few deep breaths before an important putt calms the body and allows clearer visualization]
Sporting Body, Sporting Mind: An Athlete's Guide to Mental Training, by John Syer and Christopher Connolly (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge England, 1984) [breath control for relaxation]
The Athlete's Guide to Sports Psychology: Mental Skills for Physical People, by Dorothy V. Harris and Bette L. Harris (Leisure Press, New York NY, 1984) [cataloguing techniques, including Dr Edmund Jacobson's Progressive Relaxation, Benson's Relaxation Response, meditation, autogenic training, and others, but only touching on breathing briefly]
This is all rather skimpy treatment of the subject. A few sports psychologists have gotten quite a bit deeper into the subject, including;
Body, Mind and Sport: The Mind-Body Guide to Lifelong Fitness and Your Personal Best by
Sporting Body, Sporting Mind: An Athlete's Guide to Mental Training, by John Douillard (Crown Publishing, New York NY, 1994).
Douillard covers Mind-Body breathing in his Chapter 10, showing that "mouth breathing" is stress-induced, whereas "nose breathing" is efficient and calming. "Chest" breathing pulls in more oxygen to the lungs but also increases heart rate, so that the heart has less time per beat to benefit from the lungs' increased oxygen, resulting in inefficient oxygenation. In contrast, "Diaphragmatic" breathing gets the oxygen deep into the lower reaches of the lungs, where the gravity-dependent blood is concentrated, resulting in a more efficient process.
Similarly, Taekwondo champion Tom Seaborne, also a sports psychologist, teaches "Mindfullness" martial-arts breathing for calmness, mental clarity and efficiency. he recognizes the meditative practice of nasal breathing, but describes a specific mouth-breathing pattern for high-intensity martial arts competition, as well as a pursed-mouth technique for finding your natural breathing rhythm. In general, he teaches diaphragmatic breathing for efficiency and calmness.
Mind / Body Fitness" Focus, Preparation, Performance -- Strategies for Success from a Champion Martial Artist, by Tom Seaborne (YMAA Publications Center, Boston MA, 2001).
Joseph Parent discusses abdominal breathing for relaxation, and also says that a golfer should breathe deep through his nostril and then fully expire before moving towards the ball to setup for a full shot. He says that golfers who move towards the ball before completing the expiration tend to "rush" the shot.
Zen Golf: Mastering the Mental Game, by Joseph Parent (Random House, New York NY, 2002).
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Going back to the martial arts and eastern meditative practices, one can glean quite a few interesting suggestions about how the breath and breathing patterns can help in putting. For example, under stress, the karate fighter resorts to his breathing pattern not solely for calmness and body control, but also for a surge of energy.
Karate: The Energy Connection, by W. Scott Russell (Delacorte Press, New York NY, 1976)
Controlling the breath or kai in Japanese Archery (Kyudo) becomes critical once the bow is fully drawn. The leading Kyudo master recommends completing the draw while letting the breath settle out of the upper chest into the lower abdomen. He then describes the expiration as a "leaving of the breath through the body" in an imperceptible "exhaling through the skin."
Kyudo: The Essence and Practice of Japanese Archery, by Hideharu Onuma, with Don and Jackie DePropsero (Kodansha International, Tokyo, 1993).
[Parathetically, and only a little fascetiously, I would note the movie Bull Durham in which Susan Sarandon advises Tim Robbins to "breathe through his eyelids like a lizard" when preparing to picth!]
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Similarly, the breathing pattern of expert rifle marksmen incorporates an inspiration plus either a hold or a controlled slow expiration for the trigger pull. This technique is taught by the US Army sniper school. There have been a number of studies of the breathing, heart rate, and brain activation patterns of expert marksmen during aiming and shooting.
A few pros have tried this or that for breath control during the putt itself, notably Len Mattiace (who I believe holds his breath), but these individuals don't seem to be basing their choices on very much learning about the breath itself.
I personally suspect that a nasal inspiration without filling the lungs too deeply, followed by a controlled expiration to an unforced end, and then initiating the stroke while in a state of suspended breathing may be good. perhaps upon initiating the backstroke, a very mild resumption of nasal breathing would be more natural.
I also find a connection between expiration and humming or chanting. The OM sound in meditation is produced by a long controlled expiration of the breath, and all vocalization is produced on the exhalation phase. Combining the breathing pattern in putting with this sort of "musical" breathing is also something I've found quite useful for calmness, clarity, eveness and accuracy of movement, sense of timing, and even accuity of perception and feeling.
See for example:
Tune Your Brain: Using Music to manage Your Mind, Body and Mood, by Elizabeth Miles (Berkeley Publishing Group, New York NY, 1997)
Chanting: Discovering Spirit in Sound, by Robert Gass and Kathleen Brehony (Broadway books, New York NY, 1999)
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From what I've seen, breath control has a number of applications to putting, and involves several different techniques.
Abdominal or diaphragmatic breathing for deep relaxation
Abdominal breathing for countering the fight-flight response
Abdominal breathing to quieten the body's rapid, shallow breathing under stress and the excess motion that entails
Abdominal breathing for efficient heart rate and cardiopulmonary function and energy expenditure
Nasal breathing as opposed to mouth breathing to encourage deeper, more relaxed, passive breathing
Coordination of breathing rhythm with heart rate
Prolonged expiration for added calmness and feeling of relaxed "tenderness"
Hyperventilation to temporarily depress the carbon dioxide concentration in the blood to delay chest reflex to breathe, in event stillness while holding breath is desired (same technique used by Navy Seals for long-distance underwater swimming)
Combining breathing with progressive relaxation of muscles and body parts for improved somatic and kinesthetic control
Using breathing rhythm as a "touch" or distance control cue (breathe in while looking from ball to target and time breathing so that it reaches fullness when gaze arrives at target, breathe out while returning gaze from target to ball timing the end of expiration to cooincide with arrival of gaze back at ball -- to coordinate sense of chest motion with distance)
Using alternating nasal breathing to promote hemispheric preference -- breathing normally switches during the day from one dominant nostril to the other on about a 3-hour cycle; whichever nostril is breathing differentially cools the same hemisphere of the brain at its base; this temperature differential promotes less metabolic brain activity in the cooled side and more in the uncooled side; thus to promote less left-brain thinking, internal verbalization, and analysis, and conversely better right-brain spatial awareness and targeting, left nostril breathing is suggested.
Choose either a) to hold the breath while putting or b) to inspire and hold, start the backstroke and complete the putt while holding or c) to start the downstroke with an expiration of the breath, or d) to expire before starting the stroke and then breathe mildly thru the nose going back and expiring in the downstroke, and in any event keep the depth of breathing mild to avoid too quick or abrupt a movement action in the upper torso {there are probably others]
Doubtless there are many, many further things to consider in getting a good breathing pattern for golf putting, so I will keep at this topic probably for the rest of my life.
Cheers!
Geoff Mangum
Putting Theorist and Instructor
Geoff Mangum's PuttingZone
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